This article is dedicated to Maria Grzegorzewska – an outstanding creator of the Polish school of special pedagogy, initiator, founder, and long-time director of the oldest university in Poland training special educators, and one of the most outstanding women in psychology of the 20th century, honored by the Sejm of the Republic of Poland on the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Academy of Special Pedagogy with the honorable title of Patroness of the year 2022. It presents the most important facts about her life and activities, the origins of her scientific interests, the sources of her creativity that determined how to coped with the challenges related to realizingher vocation to serve people with disabilities, her contribution to the development of various areas of culture and science, and the extraordinary power of influence on colleagues and students, thanks to which the knowledge system she created remains valid today and can set the direction for the further development of pedagogy and related disciplines.

The article presents a review of research on the prevalence of emotional and behavioral problems in children and adolescents raised in foster families. Epidemiological data indicate that these problems are significantly more in this group compared to children raised in biological families. Analysis of the results of the study indicates that children and adolescents from foster families are relatively more often observed to have behavioral problems than emotional problems. The article also presents factors that may increase the risk of these problems. They are divided into internal and external, environmental factors. The most common problems are polyetiological in nature. Also, the support given to the child and family should take into account multiple spheres and ways of influence.

In this study, we aimed to investigate the pathomechanism of eating disorders (ED) by examining mentalizing, attachment, and defense mechanisms. We conducted a study with 85 young women who completed the ECR-R, MentS, DSQ-40, and EAT-26 questionnaires. Women displaying high ED symptoms showed increased attachment anxiety and avoidance, utilized more immature defense mechanisms, and had lower levels of self-reflective mentalizing compared to the control group. There were no significant differences in interpersonal mentalizing and motivation for mentalizing. Regression analysis revealed that predictors of ED included attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and self-reflective mentalizing, explaining 47% of the variance in ED symptoms. Additionally, self-reflective mentalizing mediated the relationship between attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and the severity of ED symptoms.

Manifestations of high sensitivity can be recognized even in the youngest children. Therefore, it is not possible to test it through activities that may disrupt its proper functioning. The research presented aims to investigate the development of this trait. There have been no longitudinal studies focusing on this trait in children, as they have not been widely researched or passed between devices that connect children with their parents. The study analyzed data from 131 children aged 8–11, including 84 tested twice, and 33 pairs of parents. The Highly Sensitive Child Scale in the Polish adaptation by Baryła-Matejczuk and Poleszak, and the Highly Sensitive Person Scale translated by Golonka and Gulla were used for measurement.

The collected data confirm the validity of distinguishing three significantly different groups among children that are under control. It was noticed that girls have a higher sensitivity level than boys, and high sensitivity characterizes them more often than boys at a statistically significant level. The similarity in sensitivity levels between children and their parents has also been confirmed, along with the statistical significance in both parents. The percentage of highly sensitive children in the study group does not align with Elaine Aron’s theory assumptions and previous research findings. Additional predictions have been partially supported by the data.

While the obtained validation results have been expanded upon, it is important to note the absence of this type of testing, and these initial findings can serve as preliminary values for further in-depth analyses in the future.

Manifestations of high sensitivity can be recognized even in the youngest children. Therefore, it is not possible to test it through activities that may disrupt its proper functioning. The research presented aims to investigate the development of this trait. There have been no longitudinal studies focusing on this trait in children, as they have not been widely researched or passed between devices that connect children with their parents. The study analyzed data from 131 children aged 8–11, including 84 tested twice, and 33 pairs of parents. The Highly Sensitive Child Scale in the Polish adaptation by Baryła-Matejczuk and Poleszak, and the Highly Sensitive Person Scale translated by Golonka and Gulla were used for measurement.

The collected data confirm the validity of distinguishing three significantly different groups among children that are under control. It was noticed that girls have a higher sensitivity level than boys, and high sensitivity characterizes them more often than boys at a statistically significant level. The similarity in sensitivity levels between children and their parents has also been confirmed, along with the statistical significance in both parents. The percentage of highly sensitive children in the study group does not align with Elaine Aron’s theory assumptions and previous research findings. Additional predictions have been partially supported by the data.

While the obtained validation results have been expanded upon, it is important to note the absence of this type of testing, and these initial findings can serve as preliminary values for further in-depth analyses in the future.

The main goal of this research was to recognize the psychosocial consequences of undertaking the developmental tasks in early adulthood. We wanted to focus on verification of the influency developmental tasks (undertaking them, their importance, satisfaction, and punctuality) on the sense of adulthood, and life satisfaction. The sample consisted of 343 people, 19–35 years old. The results showed that: (1) all studied aspects of developmental tasks have a positive influence on the sense of adulthood; (2) stronger sense of adulthood and (3) undertaking two developmental tasks (marriage/partnership, professional activity) result in a higher life satisfaction.

The challenges of simultaneously experiencing depressive disorders and autism spectrum conditions pose a significant threat to the well-being of young adult women. Previous research reports indicate that engagement in meaningful activities, specifically analysed in occupational therapy, can not only increase the effectiveness of the activities performed, but also have a positive impact on overall life satisfaction and mental health. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the relationship between the severity of autistic traits, involvement in meaningful activities and depression in women. The following tools were used in the study: Short Autism Spectrum Quotient Test (AQ-10), Engagement in Meaningful Activities Scale (EMAS) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). The study involved 237 women aged 18 to 35 years (M = 21.1; SD = 1.93), who were divided into two subgroups based on AQ-10 indicators. The results revealed a linear relationship between the severity of autistic traits and involvement in meaningful activities and depressive symptoms. Additionally, a correlation was found between engagement in meaningful activities and depression. It was also identified that the intensification of autistic traits significantly differentiated the level of engagement in meaningful activities but did not differentiate the level of depression.

The number of families in which at least one parent has an intellectual disability remains unknown. Little is also known about the experiences of children growing up in such families. Single studies (e.g. retrospective studies of adult children) provide knowledge about such risk factors for child and family development as parentification or social stigma. The article presents the results of a systematic review of the literature (using the PsycArticles and PsycInfo databases) on the development of children in families with at least one parent with intellectual disability. The aim of the review was to explore the empirical research conducted so far in this area. The article ends with a list of recommendations for further empirical research.

Background: Numerous prior studies have been tested the associations between stress, coping and burnout. In fact, all three abovementioned constructs are inevitably connected with each other according to many psychological theories. Most of them, however, focused on job-stress related context and were conducted among university students or adults. Much less frequently the specific coping techniques and its relation to burnout symptoms among high school students were analyzed.

Objective: The main purpose of the current study was to investigate the associations between coping strategies and burnout syndrome among late adolescents. Secondly we tested if student burnout is a function of gender and age. Additionally, we also tested the cross-cultural validity of student burnout scale (SSBS) by Aypay.

Methods: 761 students (35.8% boys), aged 17–19 years participated in the study.

Results: The results indicate that student burnout is associated positively with poor coping strategies and negatively with searching for support and active coping strategies. Regression models revealed that higher avoiding behaviors and helplessness, and lower active coping are significant predictors of school burnout, explaining 13% of its variance. The final model consisting of coping strategies and sociodemographic characteristics (age and gender) explained 20% of variance in the SSBS score. According to our studies girls are more prone to develop school burnout syndrome than boys, and older students are more burned out than younger ones. The findings also confirmed that the SSBS scale may be applied in the Polish context as it has good psychometric properties.

Conclusion: The findings suggest that the avoiding behaviors as well as lack of active coping may play a pivotal role in school burnout among youth.

The purpose of this study was to assess the severity of parental burnout among parents of children with disabilities and chronic illness. It was hypothesized that these parents would be characterized by higher levels of parental burnout and that their child’s disability and chronic illness would moderate the relationship of parental burnout with sociodemographic factors. The study was conducted with 254 parents (M_age = 35.37 years; SD_age = 5.80) with children aged one month to 35 years; 22% of parents had a child with a disability or chronic illness. The Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) questionnaire was used to verify the research hypotheses. The correlation analyses showed that parents of children with disabilities had higher levels of parental burnout, and as the degree of constraints related to the child’s difficulties increased, the level of parental burnout increased. The moderation analyses proved to be statistically significant for the relationship between the number of children and parental burnout. Similar relationships were not found concerning the relationship of parental burnout with the fact of having a child under five or the gender of the parent. The study indicated that there are relationships between having a child with a disability or chronic illness, the degree of their limitations, and parental burnout.

The purpose of this study was to assess the severity of parental burnout among parents of children with disabilities and chronic illness. It was hypothesized that parents of children with disabilites/ilnesses would be characterized by higher levels of parental burnout and that their child’s disability and chronic illness would moderate the relationship of parental burnout with sociodemographic factors. The study was conducted with 254 parents (M_age = 35.37; SD_age = 5.80) with children aged from 1 month to 35 years, 22% of whom had a child with a disability or chronic illness. The Parental Burnout Assessment (PBA) questionnaire was used to verify the research hypotheses. The correlation analyses conducted showed that parents of children with disabilities had higher levels of parental burnout, and as the degree of constraints related to the child’s difficulties increased, the level of parental burnout increased. The results of moderation analyses showed that the relationship between the number of children and parental burnout was statistically significant. Similar relationships were not found concerning the relationship of parental burnout and having a child under five or the gender of the parent. The study indicates that there are relationships between having a child with a disability or chronic illness, the degree of their impairment, and parental burnout.

The paper presents Stefan Szuman as a multidimensional person both in his personal life and academic work. He was characterised by his academic knowledge in several areas: medicine, psychology and art. He communicated with professionals from various fields – philosophy, pedagogy, literary studies, linguistics and musicology – such as: Witkacy, Bruno Schulz or Jan Puget. In his research, he was interested in topics related to mental development (the essence of development; developmental factors; cognitive, emotional, personality changes), education, teaching (students’ attention, teaching skills) and communing with art. He used different research methods: observation, conversation, quasi-experiment and tests. He presented the results of his researches using appropriate and sophisticated language. The paper shows the current remembrance of Szuman and his works both through public events (e.g. art exhibitions) and conferences.

The main purpose of the article is to present the correspondence between Ingarden and Szuman, which necessarily requires including Witkacy in the discussion as a link between the scholars. The article has been divided into several parts, which cover the pre-war period, the time of war and the post-war era. Each of the periods had its own thematic specificity; the first discusses personal matters, the second scientific ones, and the third scientific-administrative ones.

At the beginning of his scientific career Szuman (1930a) indicted the individual personality development to be the object of his psychological investigations. He put a stress on historical character of the personality development and the role of significant deeds in it. He placed psychology of human development among humanistic disciplines of investigation in his book on human personality and character (Szuman 2014). Psychology of child and adolescent development also belong to them and are irreducible to the development of human biological organism. Child’s own actions and upbringing as well as education branch the development of individual human beings out of biology without detaching it from biology nonetheless. Szuman’s historical psychology of the individual personal development did not completely abandon a stance represented in the theory of cognition called the British empiricism, although he clearly put aside positivistic philosophy of science. It is necessary to emancipate historical psychology from the obstacles of the British empiricism’s theory of cognition in order to continue its progress. Niemczyński (2017) seems to go in this direction.

Urlic Neisser (1928–2012) is widely considered to be one of the leading figures of contemporary psychology. This scholar is also thought to have come up with an original idea concerning the constructive nature of the perception process referred to as Neisser’s cycle of perception (1976; 1978). The thesis has contributed to the development of scientific psychology, but few notice that the idea ascribed to Neisser had been developed much earlier by Stefan Szuman (1889–1972) in his concept known as the genesis of the object (1932). Comparing the two concepts makes one conclude that they are strikingly similar and that novel ideas originating on the fringes of a given field are not given enough credit.

Urlic Neisser (1928–2012) is widely considered to be one of the leading figures of contemporary psychology. This scholar is also thought to have come up with an original idea concerning the constructive nature of the perception process referred to as Neisser’s cycle of perception (1976, 1978). The thesis has contributed to the development of scientific psychology, but few notice that the idea ascribed to Neisser had been developed much earlier by Stefan Szuman (1889–1972) in his concept known as the genesis of the object (1932). Comparing the two concepts makes one reach the conclusion that they are strikingly similar and that novel ideas originating on the fringes of a given field are not given enough credit.

The article points to the original strategy of reading Stefan Szuman’s works, which has already been documented in monographic studies by the author of this text. Szuman’s classical achievement in the field of Polish psychology studies has been put into the context of the phenomenon of the „duality turn-over”, which came to theoretical maturity through the works of the „Great Generation” of the Polish pedagogues of the Interwar period, in which the author situates Szuman’s research involvements and his achievements. The paper recalls the chosen aspects, extracted from the psychologist’s works thanks to the above mentioned approach of the author. Both Szuman’s ingenious intuition and drive as well as the „epistemological obstacles” of the thought tradition in the psychology of his time – from the first decades of 20th century – are emphasised here.

The paper presents aspects of Stefan Szuman’s activities and passions that influenced both his scientific interests and friendships. He was involved in various forms of fine arts: painting, wood carving, hand weaving, poetry writing and joint music making in small home bands. For both him and Zofia Szuman – his beloved wife – aesthetic impressions were extremely important for building up their lifestyle and creating relationships with others, including famous Polish painter – Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz (Witkacy), philosopher – Roman Ingarden and writer – Bruno Schulz. The paper references the old family correspondence which creates genuine and trustworthy foundation for the image of their lives.

The purpose of the text is to point out the elements linking social representation theory and developmental psychology. Despite the differences that may seem obvious between developmental psychology and social psychology, in reality there is a deep bond that unites them; a continuity, resulting from the notion that both sub-disciplines explore issues of knowledge transformation: the former studies the transformation of knowledge over time, the latter over space. It seems interesting to show the connections and differences between these elements of the theories of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and Serge Moscovici, which deal with the concept of the development of children’s knowledge of the world in a socio-cultural context. In addition, the epistemology of social representations developed by Gerald Duveen on the basis of Piaget’s concept is important for showing these connections.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy is a disease that shows extremely complex connections between the genetic-molecular sphere and the characteristics of psychological functioning. The text presented below introduces the importance of biological sources in explaining many aspects of the psychological functioning of DMD patients. In the field of research and rehabilitation practice related to DMD, interdisciplinarity becomes a necessity that can improve the quality of life of patients with DMD and their families to a greater extent than before. On the one hand, the article is a concise account of the views that have been dominating both in the past and today about this disease, as well as a proposal outlining the directions of future research related to describing and explaining the processes that form the psychological image of people with DMD. The complexity of this image can be made more accessible and understandable if, both in research and in everyday life, it becomes possible to refer to the genetic-molecular sources, psychological resources and characteristics of the environment in which a person with DMD grows up in the process of describing and explaining DMD.

The aim of the study was to identify family-related factors connected with aggressive and task-oriented coping strategies in adolescent youth in situations of social conflict. The study was conducted on a sample of 893 adolescents aged 13 to 15. M. Plopa’s Parental Attitude Scale (Skala Postaw Rodzicielskich, SPR), the Questionnaire for Coping Strategies in Parents in Situations of Social Conflict (Kwestionariusz Strategii Radzenia sobie Rodziców w Sytuacji Konfliktu Społecznego, KSRwSK) by D. Borecka-Biernat, and Questionnaire for Coping Strategies in Adolescents in Situations of Social Conflict (Kwestionariusz do Badania Strategii Radzenia sobie Młodzieży w Sytuacji Konfliktu Społecznego, KSMK) by D. Borecka-Biernat were used in the study. An analysis of the results of the study has indicated family discriminants of aggressive and task-oriented coping strategies in adolescents in situations of social conflict; those discriminants include the perceived parental attitudes in father, including the inconsistent, autonomous, and demanding attitude; the perceived aggressive strategy in mother and father in situations of social conflict, as well as the task-oriented strategy in mother in situations of social conflict. Identifying the determinants of aggressive and task-oriented strategies in youth might allow the caretakers of adolescents to better understand their behaviour in situations of social conflict and look at its roots from the young people’s perspective. Understanding the determinants of these behaviours is a necessary step in designing strategies that can shape individuals capable of coping with conflicts in a mature manner.

In the early years of life, motor skills contribute to the formation of cognitive skills. The aim o the present study (conducted in June 2021) was to determine mutual relationships between motor variables: aiming-catching as well as manual dexterity, and the cognitive variable of spatial reasoning. It was assumed that manual dexterity played a mediating role in the relationship between agility skills and spatial reasoning. A second aim of study was to test the assumption that age played a moderating role in the relationship between manual dexterity and spatial reasoning. The participants were Polish preschool children (N = 83), including 42 boys (100% white race of children from Eastern Poland). The results indicated that manual dexterity mediated the relationship between aiming-catching skills and spatial reasoning. Age as an important moderator of the relationship between manual dexterity and spatial reasoning.

The goal of the current study was to explore the relations between the Big Five personality traits and school achievements of children in the fourth grade of primary school. Participants were (n = 157) children (aged 9–11 years) attending public primary school in Poland. Children completed a self-description inventory for the Big Five and teachers evaluated current school achievements of children for mathematics and Polish language. The obtained results indicated that neuroticism and openness to experiences were significantly associated with school achievements. Moreover, the relationship between the Big Five and school achievements was moderated by gender in that a) agreeableness as well as the Big Five sub-scales of inferiority and helping behaviour were negatively associated with school achievements only among girls, and b) the openness to experience sub-scale of problem solver was positively associated with school achievements only among boys. The results suggest that the relationship between the Big Five personality traits and school achievements may depend on gender.

High school graduates usually suffer from stress one month before the final exams. The research’s aim was to compare the depression and burnout symptoms measured in April 2019 (before the pandemic) and in April 2020 (during the pandemic) in the Polish high school students. The results showed that the COVID-19 pandemic affected adolescent girls more than boys, leading to higher rates of depression, student burnout, and imbalanced time perspective. Females perceived lower family acceptance than boys. Males were less depressed and more burned out during the pandemic than before, while girls not only were more burned out but were also more depressed, were imbalanced in their time perspective, and perceived lower family acceptance during the COVID-19 pandemic than before the outbreak.

The aim of the article is to present the concept of parental burnout, which has recently become a topic of interest for researchers. In the article, we review the theoretical concept of pa-rental burnout, present the questionnaires to measure it as well as the research results indicating risk factors and consequences of parental burnout, and the first studies on the effectiveness of psychological interventions to reduce it. This article presents information in a concise, simple and understandable way, providing readers with a quick overview of the theory of parental burnout and the latest research on this phenomenon.

The article is devoted to the characteristics of a course of the psychological crisis caused by a critical event, which is the death of a child. The author of the work refers to the cyclical-phase model of developmental changes, which is well-known in the developmental psychology, and the Dual Process Model of Coping with Bereavement (DPM) of Margaret Stroebe, Henk Schut and Catrin Finkenauer (1999, 2001, 2010, 2013, 2015). What parents experience after the loss of a child is not an identical and parallel process. The course of mourning in parents is not the same. Rather, it is the interweaving of different states of mourning, sometimes with a regression to previous states. The result is a different mental condition of the mother and the father as a consequence of dealing more or less successfully with the loss of a child. The paper, based on theoretical and empirical analyses, proposes an original model of four psychological statuses of parents after the loss of a child. It takes into account the differentiation of the mental condition of parents in connection with the possibility of adequate psychological help. The bereavement status model (MSK) takes into consideration the statuses of secondary adaptation, unfinished mourning, complex persistent bereavement disorder, and the status of possible post-traumatic growth. A hypothesis worthy of empirical verification has been formulated that in assessing the mental condition of parents after the loss of a child, it is worth proposing a specific diagnostic package containing information on the life situation of the family; the time that has passed since the death of a child; the sex of the parent; intensification of feelings of loneliness, availability of social support and its perception by parents, and the assessment of coping strategies for everyday stress. It remains an open question, what are the direct and indirect relationships between these variables and whether their differentiation proves the legitimacy of distinguishing certain conditioning statuses of mourning in parents after the loss of a child. This is currently the subject of an empirical research testing out the MSK model.

Since 1930, there has been a shift from an interest only in the resilience of the individual to analyzing it in relation to the family as well. Family resilience is a process of positive adaptation of the entire family and its members, and effective coping with life’s adversities (Luthar et al., 2000). In addition to coping with the demands, family resilience enables development in the face of serious life challenges (Walsh, 2006, 2016). Using the key processes of resilience, a family facing difficulties can emerge stronger and more resourceful in the face of future challenges. Froma Walsh (2013) distinguishes three overarching domains of family resilience: the belief system, the organizational patterns of family life, and the communication and problem-solving process. Research on the post-traumatic growth indicates that a crisis can be a serious warning that increases family’s attention to the core values and important life issues; an opportunity to reassess life priorities that initiates the allocation of more time and attention to meaningful relationships (Tedeschi, Calhoun, 2004). The article presents the definitions and the history of the concept of family resilience. The Walsh model of family resilience is also presented and the practical implications of the model are discussed.

For the last several decades, psychologists have been paying attention to the changes in the Polish family model and the transformation of the father’s role within it. These are the processes that were also significantly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. The objective of the research was to understand how the Polish young men awaiting the birth of their first child experience fatherhood in this time of crisis. Seven semi-structured interviews were conducted with men aged 26–35. Their transcripts were subject to Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). The results showed that the pandemic took away the opportunity to act in areas that were previously available to fathers from the participants. At the same time, the pandemic gave them new areas where they could fulfil themselves as fathers. Despite the limited access to prenatal care services, participants got a chance to be more present in their unborn child’s life. Moreover, they got a chance to be more active at the stage of waiting for their birth.

Suppressing negative emotions (anger, fear, sadness) can lead to an increase in emotional tension. Unexpressed emotions contribute to the deterioration of health and may also contribute to the emergence of psychosomatic disorders and certain diseases, such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, and cancer. Research shows that depressive emotionality is associated with lower self-esteem while lowering life quality and life satisfaction. The aim of the study was to analyze whether suppressing negative emotions is related to the level of self-esteem amongst young mothers and their satisfaction with life, as well as to identify mediators that determine the quality of this relationship. 340 young mothers (mean age 30.09) were examined. To conduct the research the Emotional Control Scale – CECS in its Polish adaptation of Zygfryd Juczyński, the Life Satisfaction Scale by Zygfryd Juczyński and the SES Self-esteem Scale adapted by Mariola Łaguna, Kinga Lachowicz-Tabaczek and Irena Dzwonkowska were used. The analyses confirmed the existence of significant relations between the level of suppressing negative emotions (sadness and anxiety) and self-esteem as well as life satisfaction. It also turned out that the level of self-esteem is an important mediator in the relation between the suppression of sadness and anxiety by young mothers and their satisfaction with life.

Children and adolescents are the groups particularly vulnerable to the consequences of the climate crisis. Global warming, extreme weather phenomena, and progressive environmental degradation have an adverse effect on their development. It is up to the adults to make decisions and actions allowing for mitigating the consequences of climate change, opting for an environmentally friendly household management, offering protection and support to the children, as well as explaining the situation to them and shaping their attitudes. That is why the presented research focuses precisely on parents, the specificity of their functioning in the climate crisis compared to childless people. The study included a group of 333 adults, including 67 parents. Self-report methods were used, including questionnaires developed specifically for this project that examined knowledge about the climate and belief in climate myths; as well as the inventories on current and planned pro-ecological activity. The proprietary scale examining climate emotions and the Climate Change Anxiety Scale by Clayton and Karazsia were also used. The relationships between the variables established in the group of parents and the differences between the groups of people who are parents and those who do not have children were analyzed. Based on the results of the study, an attempt was made to analyze the experiences and behaviours of parents in the context of the climate crisis, and a number of guidelines were formulated that can help them in dealing with children so that they experience the climate situation in the least burdensome way possible, while at the same time receiving support from adults, creating habits that are good for the climate and building up the motivation for pro-environmental activity.

The article is an attempt to analyze the contemporary results of research on neurodevelopmental disorders in order to advance the search for various diagnostic approaches, predictors of a negative course of development, and changes in the dynamics of symptoms. The authors, based on a literature review, show that different levels of susceptibility to negative events are not a simple consequence of a specific NDD diagnosis [i.e., autism spectrum disorders (ASD) or ADHD] but also depend on the interaction of genetic factors (i.e., the general phenotype of NDD, which depends on spontaneous genetic mutations or changes in the number of copies of DNA fragments) and prenatal and perinatal environmental factors.

In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the number of diagnosed cases of autism. In the case of a correctly made diagnosis, a positive effect of this phenomenon is the possibility of obtaining therapeutic intervention that is adequate for the patient. On the other hand, some researchers note the risk associated with overdiagnosis of these conditions. It is postulated that the diagnosis process should not focus only on the presence of individual symptoms, but also on understanding their meaning and the history of their occurrence. In addition, many mental, neurological and genetic disorders may have symptoms that are common to or mimic those of autism. A diagnosis of autism has specific psychological (immediate), social and financial effects, and incorrect diagnosis can delay the best intervention for the patient.

As the population of children who are diagnosed as being on autism spectrum grows in number, so does the interest of scientists in this subject. Specialists in various fields increasingly not only focus on the children themselves but also examine their families’ situation and functioning. By doing so, they aim to understand the family as a system. Numerous empirical studies have demonstrated that when a baby with a disability is born or when it develops in an abnormal way, this becomes a source of suffering, anxiety, grief, or hostility towards the outside world. Such a situation is viewed as a crisis, a loss, and a process of mourning; working through these experiences is difficult, requires tremendous work, and requires external support in many cases. For these reasons, this paper provides a brief overview of parents’ experiences in the process of diagnosing a child; it cites the literature on the topic and shows the different paths of these experiences.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are disorders with a neurodevelopmental background. Their characteristic features are stereotypical: constant and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests, as well as difficulties in social communication and interpersonal relations. Research works on adolescents with ASD show that building relationships with other people is a challenge for them because – even though they might have very good general knowledge of social principles – they have insufficiently developed skills to recognize signals in human behavior and to respond adequately to them. Moreover, these difficulties in the emotional and social spheres are initially often overlooked in children who are on the autism spectrum but function on an average or high level. The main aim of the work is to present the situation of two adolescent brothers who both present the symptoms of Asperger’s syndrome (AS). At the time of the examination, the younger boy (Wojtek) was 14 years old and had been diagnosed with Asperger’s Syndrome. The older brother (Tomek) was 18 years old and had started a series of meetings with a psychologist. Both teenagers were tested with tools that assess the development of social competencies, intelligence and emotional intelligence. The conducted tests and interviews showed that the boy without a confirmed diagnosis of Asperger’s Syndrome had greater difficulties than his younger brother in understanding the emotions and intentions of other people. The younger brother felt much better in the interpersonal area and functioned more effectively in social situations, despite the fact that he also has intra- and interpersonal problems. Perhaps due to his timely diagnosis, the younger brother obtains more support from his family and probably also received support at key moments in his social and emotional development. The presented case study emphasizes the importance of the proper socio-emotional assessment of people in the diagnostic process. Its limitations are the lack of assessment of the boys’ mood and temperamental differences. These issues should be addressed in subsequent research.

People with autism spectrum condition (ASC) sometimes mask the features of autism, and this could be related to their level of self-esteem. The aim of the research was to show the relationship between the intensity of autistic features, camouflage and self-esteem. Polish versions of the following tools were used in the study: the Short Autism Spectrum Quotient Test (AQ-10), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Camouflaging Autistic Traits Questionnaire-CAT-Q. The study involved 100 adults (aged 18 to 52) who were divided into two groups based on their ASD diagnosis and empirical AQ-10 indicators: an ASD group (N1 = 41, declaration of ASD diagnosis and indicator AQ ≥ 6; 31 females, 4 males, 6 nonbinary persons, mean age = 28.71, sd = 8.86); and a non-ASD group (N2 = 48, no ASD diagnosis and indicator AQ 6; 29 females, 17 males and nonbinary persons, mean age = 26.14, sd = 9.64). The results revealed the existence of a linear relationship between the severity of autistic traits and the use of camouflaging strategies. No linear relationship was found between self-esteem and the other variables; however, some significant differentiation was identified due to the distinguished level of self-esteem (low, medium, high).

Introduction: Executive functions have been the subject of intensive research in recent years. Both questionnaire tools and experimental tasks are used to measure them. A review of the literature on the subject indicates a significant but weak relationship between these two methods of measurement. It is worth emphasizing that, in the case of children, questionnaire measurement is very prone to errors caused by differences between indirect observation by parents or teachers. Aim: The aim of this article is to increase the current knowledge of the relationship between questionnaire measures and experimental tasks. In particular, this study aims to investigate differences between the observations of parents and teachers in the assessment of working memory and inhibition in children. The relationship between experimental and questionnaire tasks is studied, and a hypothesis regarding a stronger relationship between these two methods of measurement using latent variables is verified. Study group: The study was conducted on a group of 200 children, aged 5–6, attending preschool or the first grade of primary school. Result: In the analyzed group, the differences between the answers of teachers and parents were significant, but the effect size was low. The relationship between the individual subscales was also moderate. The relationship between questionnaire measurements and experimental tasks in the study group has been confirmed by other studies. The correlation coefficient between parents’ and teachers’ assessments is significant and low, ranging from 0.19 to 0.30. Conclusions: In conclusion, the obtained results confirm the observations of other researchers: task-based and questionnaire-based measures evaluate different constructs. Questionnaires capture more global expressions of executive functions in different life contexts (home, school) over longer periods of time, while experimental tasks assess basic cognitive abilities in a more predictable and structured environment.

The aim of the article is to present different approaches to understanding resilience as well as to point out possibilities for research in this area. A broad list of measurement tools for researching adults in terms of resilience, resilience related factors and mental health is presented. Examples of standards and criteria are presented, which can be helpful in the process of constructing further studies, with the aim of finding a common field of research and further possibility of generalizing conclusions. The article also presents examples of longitudinal research and research conducted in the experimental paradigm. It concludes with the necessity for further empirical and applied research on resilience, especially involving the three levels: cognitive, emotional and behavioural.

Choosing a career path is an important decision made in the course of life, a developmental task which every individual faces. Career indecision, however, is a challenge that has plagued young people who do not know the career options they have, or lack vital information on oneself that will help them make a course choice. Some factors that play a role in career decision including career guidance, interest-based personality and systemizing were investigated to predict students’ course choice. The study involved 248 participants who completed the survey online. Results revealed that both the utility and deficiency subscales of career guidance did not predict the course choice. Enterprising personality type predicted course choice only when career guidance and interest-based personality were considered (OR = 6.36, p = .03, 95% CI = [1.11, 36.41]). However, topography subscale of systemizing predicted course choice, noting a decreasing odds of falling within the humanities category (OR = .64, p = .01, 95% CI = [.44, .91]). The study shows that career indecision is still one of the major developmental challenges that an individual faces while growing up, thus career counsellors are expected to play a vital role in providing solutions to these challenges by providing insightful guidance to individuals from an early stage.

The last decades brought us a deeper reflection on the role of the future and thinking about it in our lives in psychology. Numerous studies supplied us with much empirical evidence on how crucial the role of thinking about one’s future is to human behavior and to general development. Making predictions about one’s future is one type of prospective activity. These predictions (vision) may be related to many areas of life, e.g., intimate relationship, work, being a parent. The current study aimed to develop a quantitative, self-report measure of the extension of the vision of own parenting (VOP). Findings from the first study (N = 450, M [age in years] = 20.82, SD = 2.81) resulted in reducing initial 105-item version to the 85-item one. Findings from the second study, with a different sample (N = 352, M [age in years] = 19.57, SD = 2.48), resulted in 78-item (divided into eleven scales) version of the Vision of Own Parenting Questionnaire (VOPQ). These results were supported by confirmatory factor analysis. The internal reliability of the VOPQ was assessed across two studies, and was found to be high (α = .72 - .89). The criterion validity was established in the second study, whereby the VOPQ subscales were demonstrated to be associated with future time perspective, empathy, and life values. The VOPQ represents a valid, psychometrically sound, and novel method of assessing the extension of the vision of own parenting and parenting valuing.

The role of attachment and filial maturity dimensions in predicting expectations of filial caregiving was investigated on a sample of 296 (186 females) prospective caregivers aged 26 to 60. Consistent with previous studies, attachment avoidance negatively predicted the filial caregiving expectations. These effects were partially mediated by filial comprehending, which predicted higher self-expectations in providing assistance to the parent. Filial distancing was proven to be a negative predictor of caregiving expectations, although in low relation with attachment avoidance. Findings suggest the importance of further exploration, as well as the importance of the concept of filial maturity in the context of filial responsibilities and long-term parent-child relations.

The pattern of the functioning of a Polish mother, based on the cognitive component of her stereotype shared by mothers, combines certain features, behaviors and devotion to the family. “Parenting myths”are parents’beliefs about the necessity to give their child all the best and ensure a happy childhood. It was assumed, that both self-sacrificing for children and being guided by myths can lead to women’s overburdening with parental role. Three methods were used: the Identification with a Polish Mother Questionnaire, the Selected Parental Myths Questionnaire and Polish version of the Parental Burnout Assessment. 284 mothers (aged 19–55) took part in the research. Preliminary results showed that the degree of identification with the characteristics of the Polish-Mother was negatively correlated with parental burnout symptoms, but positively with following parental myths.

The theory of selective optimization with compensation (SOC), developed by Paul Baltes, and a relational position in the psychological analysis of stress were chosen as the basis for the assumptions of the research study reported on in this article. Additionally, it was assumed that a sense of well-being in seniors may be reduced by crises, which are a response to difficult and unexpected life events. The purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between selected strategies of coping with stress and the well-being of seniors during the period of forced social isolation that was introduced in the spring of 2020 during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.

The participants of this on-line study consisted of 190 late adulthood individuals with a mean age of 68.7 (SD = 5.24). The measurement tools included assessment of the following areas: perceived stress (PSS-10), ways of coping with stress (MINI COPE), the sense of efficacy (GSES) and life satisfaction (SWLS).

The results showed that the most common coping methods in the group of seniors studied were active coping, planning, positive revaluation and acceptance. Correlation-regression analysis showed that the level of stress of seniors during a pandemic negatively depends on a sense of efficacy and two ways of coping with stress which include acceptance and active coping, and positively depends on a denial and psychoactive substance use.

These results are predominantly consistent with other research studies reported during the pandemic period, which indicate the directions of possible preventive as well as intervention measures for seniors.

Preterm infants are at increased risk of difficulties in language development, including speech and language developmental delays. Preterm birth impacts the pattern and the quality of parent–child interactions, which, in turn, may affect the child’s language and communication development. The article presents the results of research on parents’interactions with their preterm born children and describes some programs aimed at improving parent–child interactions.

This work, inspired by the symbolic “centenary”of Polish psychology has been dedicated to the emergence and development of applied psychology. The main protagonist of applied psychology, and clinical psychology in particular, has been, in the author’s opinion, Lightner Witmer (1867–1956), an American psychologist promoting the clinical method of getting to know the patient through a direct contact of the psychologist with the maladjusted, including contact in their everyday environment. Witmer’s message, supported by the new ideas of the systems theory, environmental psychology and the spreading concepts of social psychology, can be all found in what is currently expected from psychologists. Applied psychology is not only a “bridge”between the theory of psychology and professional practice, but most of all, it remains a science directed towards practice, open to the contemporary challenges; a science that accepts the necessity to adjust the ethos of the profession and the new tasks of environmental work for the improvement of health and the quality of life.

This study examined the role of health behaviors in the relationship between personality traits and psychological well-being. The sample consisted of 147 participants (51% female), aged between 20 and 35 years. Respondents completed the NEO-FFI Personality Inventory, Psychological Well-being Scale (PWBS), and Health Behaviour Inventory (IZZ). The results confirmed the significant relationships between the personality traits, health behaviors and psychological well-being. Extraversion, conscientiousness and neuroticism were related to health behaviors. Personality traits appeared as significant predictors of psychological well-being (68% of explained variances in PWBS). The health behaviors mediated the relationship between three abovementioned personality traits and psychological well-being. A higher health behavior score was shown to reduce the strength of the effect of personality traits on psychological well-being. Findings indicate that personality traits are important in designing health programs to improve mental health.

The aim of this report is to call attention to a unique clinical group of children who are not diagnosed with ASD but exhibit excessive interest in specific topics or repetitive behaviors. It is argued that this group might require specific developmental stimulation, especially in light of the fact that it does not receive adequate professional treatment or support. The results of conducted surveys are supplemented with additional diagnostic and anamnestic data from which practical conclusions based on research evidence are drawn and general guidelines for intervention are formulated. Further research into this group is also suggested.

Theoretical background: Personal resources are one of the attributes that protect against the destructive consequences of experiencing a difficult situation and that figure in the overall assessment of life satisfaction.

Aim: The aim of the study was to analyze whether the individual dimensions of attachment are related to the level of personal resources of people diagnosed with schizophrenia and their life satisfaction, and to identify mediators that determine the quality of these relationships.

Study group: 50 people were tested. The average age of the respondents was 49 years.

Method: The measurement of the variable attachment was made using Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised by Chris Fraley, Kelly Brennan and Neils Waller, in the Polish adaptation of Cezary Wiśniewski; the Life Satisfaction Scale by Zygfryd Juczyński was used to determine the variable satisfaction with life. The level of personal resources was measured using the Lifespan Individual Resilience Scale in the Polish adaptation of Alicja Malina, Julie Ann Pooley and Craig Harms.

Results: The analyzes carried out in the course of the study confirmed the existence of significant relationships between the level of personal resources and life satisfaction. Research has also confirmed that there are significant links between attachment and life satisfaction, and between attachment and personal resources. It also turned out that the level of personal resources is an important mediator in the relation between avoidance and the level of life satisfaction in people diagnosed with schizophrenia.

Conclusion: The level of personal resources and secure attachment correlate with a higher life satisfaction of people diagnosed with schizophrenia.

The analysis of gender identity is based on the narratives of women who volunteered to serve in the military after the start of World War II and fought as soldiers in the Red Army. Forty years after World War II, Svetlana Alexievich conducted interviews with women veterans, which she published in the book War’s Unwomanly Face. Their memories of wartime and post-war period were analyzed from the perspective of their gender identity, i.e. the ability to reconcile the role of a woman determined by their biological sex with the role of a soldier determined by the circumstances. The interpretation of this problem offered in the paper is based on developmental psychology theories of Erik Erikson, James Marcia, Daniel Levinson, and Jeffrey Arnett, and the sociological perspective on identity. Selected narratives from Alexievich’s reportages are analyzed focusing on identification and interpretation of different themes, which are assessed according to their relevance to the understanding of the process described. The narrators were only 16–20 years old at the time of joining the military and they were still at the stage of identity moratorium.

It required a lot of determination for them to become a soldier. Their identity as a soldier was their assumed identity, defined by Marcia as ideological or professional engagement without completing the period of exploration. Women were not welcome in the army, they suffered because of logistical shortcomings, but they still supported all of the units, became officers and military leaders, and were awarded medals for their valor, courage and reliability. After the war, they were socially rejected and condemned and they needed to process their identity, i.e. reject their military ethos in order to strengthen their sense of being a women. Based on Arnett’s concept one can conclude that their “in between”period of identity exploration was determined by external events and social relations.

The paper focuses on the cognitive value of psychological knowledge about the human mind and personality development in children, adolescents and adults. It is argued that axiological engagement of developmental psychology means reference to its object of study with truth-value judgments about it. The understanding of human development entails an axiological engagement with it that is directed towards truth. Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz wrote about the significance of the anti-irrational stance in our cognition and in our actions guided by cognition toward reaching planned desirable ends within our human social world. Ajdukiewicz has pondered the epistemic value of being true or false with our knowledge; any utilitarian or pragmatic considerations or uses of it notwithstanding. It is assumed by him that one should preserve an anti-irrational stance in order to decide on the difference between true and false beliefs. It is argued that the science of psychology reduces the value of cognition to utilitarian and pragmatic values and knows next to nothing about how to identify truth and falsity of beliefs. This assertion implies an urgent need to find out how children, youth, and adults learn to deal with epistemic values of their beliefs. One should put aside the positivistic and empiricist theory of human cognition in order to open a space for a new proposal in developmental psychology. It deals with the relation of reference of beliefs of human subjects to the objects of their cognition in their social world and argues for the return to the notion of ideals in psychology in order to investigate their indispensable role in human mind and personality development.

The paper refers to three issues: the effective way to reach the truth, the inconclusive and equivocal (interpretative) nature of truth, and the axiological involvement of developmental psychology. The first issue can be resolved by arguing for the need to connect a good theory with a thoughtful research program. The second thesis finds its confirmation in that the critique and reconsideration of what was previously established are the essence of scientific investigations. Finally, the issue of the role played by values in developmental psychology will be analysed on four levels: the first deals with theories and concepts of values; the second with values as the object of psychological investigations; the third points to how values enter the research process itself; and the fourth refers to how concepts and theories in psychology become filled with axiology.

The author argues that truth is the basic value in all sciences including psychology. Respecting this value requires understanding different theories of truth, including the Aristotelian classical theory, Russell’s correspondence theory, and Tarski’s semantic theory. This is further presented and discussed in the first part of the article. In the second part, the author discusses different epistemological approaches to the correspondence between perceptual experience and reality and identifies the one favouring understanding in the science of psychology. The author further discusses and emphasises the dangers of confusing beliefs and truth in science. In the next part of the article the consequences and dangers of relativizing truth and of multiplying its subjective types are discussed. The author then refers to an approach which proposes a break with ideals in the assessment of the adequacy of assertions made by social sciences. The author outlines the difference between the concepts of idea and ideal and their roles in psychology. Finally, the author discusses and opposes irrationalism in science, outlining the importance of safeguarding the value of truth in order to achieve the goals set by psychology.

The article presents the answer to a number of questions concerning the axiological involvement of developmental psychology. One of the aspects of the answer is pointing to the problem of specifying the subject of psychology without losing its essence. The issue of discussion with the dualistic vision of the world adopted by scientist-oriented psychology is also raised. The importance of autonomy and subjective freedom is emphasized in the context of trying to understand the human being as a reference point in developmental psychology.

Beyond immediate references to the introductory paper, one may find in the commentaries a set of other interesting issues. They are left to another occasion, since the focus here is on remarks inviting further elaboration on the main theses’ clarification and grounding. It goes in three directions, to (i) clarify the difference between a rejection of British empiricism as a misleading theory of human cognition and a postulate to replace it with an adequate theory of cognitive reference to the truth of believes about the objects of experience in the world of human culture and civilization, (ii) dismiss from the theory of human knowledge the belief in the construction of mind-representations of the objects of cognition, and to focus instead on the relation of reference in judgments to the independent objects of knowledge within the human world, and (iii) to ground the objective status of the ideal of truth and the other values within the world of culture and civilization arrangements.

The life history theory (LHT) is an evolutionary theory derived from evolutionary biology. According to it, species choose a reproductive strategy that maximizes adaptation (i.e., increases the chances of surviving and producing offspring) on the basis of influences contained in the environment which impacts development in the early stages of life. LHT, due to its connections with such psychological theories as psychosocial acceleration, the evolutionary theory of socialization, or the attachment theory, is also a developmental psychology theory which points to specific development paths within an evolutionary frame. The aim of this article is to shed light on LHT from the point of view of developmental psychology – a question as yet absent from the Polish literature of the subject.

Polish society is aging. Currently, people over 65 constitute 16.5% of the population. Along with changes in the population structure, the number of patients with dementia disorders increases. Every year, worldwide, there are nearly 4.6 million new patients diagnosed with dementia, including the Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The purpose of this article is to review research studies that analyze visual-spatial deficits, eyesight and eye movement changes in normally aging people and in patients with AD. With age, various cognitive deficits appear, including visualspatial deficits of perception of complex stimuli, copying figures and visual construction, coordination and visual-spatial processing. So far, a number of studies have been conducted which show that people with AD have a thinner retinal nerve fiber layer. Macular volume and thickness reduction is also observed, which correlates with the severity of cognitive impairment. Research also points to the association of AD with eye movement disorders. Patients in this group make a greater number of errors in anti-saccade tasks as compared to healthy people. Typical for AD are delayed saccades and slow vertical saccade movement, lower accuracy and longer latency time, as well as lower saccadic inhibition as compared to normally ageing people. Identification of eye movement disorders can not only provide information on the severity of the disease but also make it possible to track its progression, and thus, probably, evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment. Further studies will verify the diagnostic value of the retinal changes as an AD marker and the eye movement disorders in determining the severity of the disease, monitoring its course and assessing the effectiveness of the treatment.

The aim of the study was to examine whether there exists a relationship between temperamental traits and selected characteristics of autobiographical memories. 71 persons twice recalled and rated their holiday memories: in October and three months later. In addition, the participants filled in the Formal Characteristics of Behavior – Temperament Inventory, Revised Version. The results revealed that participants with high emotional reactivity recall few events and their recollections are mostly negative and non-specific. Participants with high activity recall many different events and their recollections contain strong emotions. Participants with high perseveration recall negative events first. The exploration of the relation between temperament and autobiographical memories may help discover mechanisms that contribute to the construction of given narrative schemas through which they may influence individual development.

The article presents a qualitative study on the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic among people aged 60+, carried out in its initial stage, in Poland. Three individual, semi-structured interviews were conducted in May 2020, in order to explore how the pandemic is perceived in a cognitive, emotional and social context, and how it refers to study participants’ past experiences. Purposive sampling was used, taking into account criteria of the specific situation of people aged 60+: belonging to the group at increased risk of serious consequences of the disease and being subject to special preventive interventions. Based on the thematic analysis of the data corpus, six issues were identified: information about the coronavirus, changes in the current life, emotional and cognitive attitudes, references to the past, coping strategies and predictions. There was a large variation observed in the way of thinking about the reported events, experienced emotions and visions of the future. The pandemic phenomenon was presented on many levels, being evaluated as a difficult but perhaps valuable experience.

Learning a variety of school subjects may involve experiencing repeated inability to perform tasks effectively despite one’s efforts. The negative consequences of such experiences are called intellectual helplessness (Sędek, 1995). One of the factors relevant to its occurrence may be the feedback provided by the teacher. The main aim of the study was to determine whether there is a relationship between the frequency and type of praise and criticism formulated by Polish language teachers or mathematics teachers and intellectual helplessness in a given subject, as well as to examine gender differences in this respect. A total of 381 (193F and 188M) students aged 12–16 years participated in the study. Two methods were used: the School Communication Questionnaire (Bąk, 2016) and the Intellectual Helplessness Scale in versions for Polish language and mathematics (Sędek, 1995). The results indicate that girls and boys do not differ in the level of intellectual helplessness in both subjects. However, in the group of girls, the intensity of intellectual helplessness in mathematics increases with age. Boys experience a wider variety of ineffective feedback from the teacher than girls. The level of intellectual helplessness in students in both subjects decreases along with the increase in the praise and reduction of the often ineffective criticism.

The development of mental disorders in adults has its roots in the early childhood experiences. Transmitted from generation to generation, an insecure attachment impairs the ability to mentalize, which plays a special role in the processing of traumatic injuries and the healing process. The aim of the article is to show the development of mental disorders in children and adults; to present mentalization as a protective factor in the transmission of insecure attachment, as well as to indicate clinical implications.

Adolescence tends to be perceived as a time of seeking autonomy and independence, as well as of reorganizing one’s social functioning and forming one’s identity. Young people wish for their concepts of themselves and their future lives to remain cohesive and stable. Undoubtedly, motherhood belongs to one of the most important experiences which shape a woman’s life in a certain way. It is clearly connected with the biological nature as well as with certain sociocultural expectations. Teenage motherhood tends to be perceived as a serious problem in social discussions. Becoming a mother before the coming of age is connected with the necessity of accepting responsibility for the child and it contributes to a change of the previous way of functioning. The aim of the paper is to present the specificity of the period of adolescence, teenage motherhood, difficulties and the role of support for the young mothers. 

The aim of the study was to examine the differences in religious experience in early, middle and late adulthood. The study examined 608 people who were a part of catholic religious communities. Religious Experience Scale, which includes five dimensions: Importance rating, Negative experiences, God’s support, Entrusting in God and Openness to God, was used. Statistical analyzes showed that the level of religious experience was significantly differentiated by the age of the respondents for four out of five dimensions of Religious Experience: Importance rating, God’s support, Entrusting in God and Negative experiences. People in late adulthood were characterized by the highest level of Importance rating, God’s support, Entrusting in God and the lowest level of Negative experiences compared to people in early and middle adulthood. The nature of late adulthood – i.e., the ability to discover the specificity of religious experience to understand and interpret the signs of God’s presence and action in everyday events – may account for the observed effects. The results of the study add to the knowledge on religious experience depending on the developmental stage of the person. They could be used to adjust the character of pastoral counseling to the needs of specific age groups of adult clients.

In order to determine whether the reported association between the development of theory of mind (ToM) and speech comprehension in ASD children also exists at the early stages of ToM development, a group of 33 children with ASD and reduced ToM development were tested using the Belief understanding subscale of the SToMM and the Speech comprehension subscale of the IDS-P. The statistical analyses demonstrated that children with ASD presenting different levels of early ToM skills also have different levels of speech comprehension. Accordingly, supporting the development of speech comprehension can facilitate the acquisition of early ToM skills. At the same time, the results of a qualitative analysis also suggested that manipulating objects in space, moving them as well as moving themselves may help children with ASD to complete ToM tasks.

Artistic activities are one of the basic and most important activities during childhood. They are a rich source of information about child’s development, their values and temperament as well as their sense of aesthetics and beauty. At the same time these abilities have attracted considerable attention as a research field of interest in developmental psychology. This article presents results of research aimed at examining the level of 2D and 3D artistic activities performed by children aged 7–9 years, as well as at comparing the quality of these works. The acquisition of additional data pertaining to the research group made it possible to conduct a precise statistical analysis, which has been combined with the observations enabled the formulation of constructive and undoubtedly interesting conclusions. Conduct of the undertaken research was possible thanks to the careful selection of appropriate qualitative and quantitative methods – i.e., the observation method, the method of analysing the child’s products, the ability test (Goodenough-Harris Draw-A-Man Test) and the statistical analysis (descriptive statistics, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient). The artworks used in the study were created by 50 children aged 7–9 years, which formed an extensive research group in which, as assumed, an impressive number of correlations related to children’s 2D and 3D plastic skills were demonstrated. The conducted qualitative and quantitative research allowed for the statistical confirmation of the presence of both a strong positive correlation between the ability to perform 2D and 3D art work by children aged 7–9 years, and a number of complementary correlations between the age of the child and his/her artistic abilities, between education of both parents and child’s artistic abilities, as well as between mother’s education and the number of children she has.

The subject of this study is the psychological analysis which uses a biographical method to analyze the last stages of a long life and the crisis “between life and death”of the two outstanding writers of the twentieth century: Maria Kuncewiczowa and Sándor Márai. The analyzed data giving insight into the life events and the personal experiences of the last few years of their lives was sourced from the last texts published by the writers. In the case of Maria Kuncewiczowa, these are: Notatki włoskie: Przezrocza (Italian Notes: Transparencies, 2010) and Listy do Jerzego (Letters to Jerzy, 1988). In the case of the Hungarian writer Sándor Márai, it will be the final part of the 5th Volume of the Diary 1977–1989, pp. 345–387 (Márai, 2020). The tasks and challenges at this stage of life, which is one immediately preceding the inevitable death, are as follows: functioning at the late old age in a changed life situation after the death of the spouse and the manner of responding to one’s own death. The analysis of experiences related to the life situation, mainly carried out with use of the conceptual apparatus of the psychology of the course of life (Bühler, 1999), allows us to observe the coherence of life events and subjective experiences in the examined period of life, which is an expression of the creative activity and the spirituality of these outstanding writers, as well as constitutes their life experience in preparation for the death.

Prosociality, understood as the capacity to act in a way that benefits others, is an important feature for emerging adults to fulfill their personal needs and fulfill developmental tasks. This life period is a time of exploration within various areas of life, enabling individuals to try out and choose own worldview, lifestyle, work and preferred patterns of interpersonal relationships. This review aims at bringing together the evidence on how prosociality (prosocial orientations, values, behaviors) or deficits in such features may be linked to the fulfillment of three basic human needs as conceptualized by the self-determination theory in emerging adults. The relation of prosociality to the three tasks in the context of development in emerging adulthood: (1) reaching autonomy from the family of origin, (2) achieving own identity and (3) establishing positive relationships with others, are outlined based on a literature review. Implications for future research are also provided.

The aim of the present study was to analyse the personality traits and value preferences of students from integrated and non-integrated classes. Sixty-nine primary school sixth graders were surveyed (M = 12.45; SD = .58). The group of students attending integrated classes included 38 individuals. The remaining 31 students attended non-integrated classrooms. Personality traits were measured using the Picture-Based Personality Survey for Children (PBPS-C ) and value preferences were determined on the basis of the Picture-Based Value Survey for Children (PBVS-C). The results showed that youth from the integrated classes did not differ significantly from their peers from the non-integrated classes in terms of personality traits. In case of values, students from the non-integrated classes cherished values of Universalism more than their peers from the integrated classes. Correlation analyses showed that the patterns of relations between personality traits and preferred values were partially different for the two groups. Nevertheless, a similar pattern of relations was observed in both groups between Openness to Experience and values in the categories of Self-direction and Universalism.

The study explores the structure of adult (N = 170, M_age = 30) beliefs regarding the sexu­ality of preschool children (Ratkowska-Pasikowska, Pasikowski, 2013). Furthermore it evaluates the probable predictors of these beliefs: avoidance and anxiety dimensions of attachment, moral foundations and the levels of cognitive and affective empathy. Results show a two-factor differen­tiation of beliefs regarding children’s sexuality. Adults make a distinction between intrusive behav­iors, related to verbal aggression or potential violation of other people’s intimacy, and behaviors combining sexuality with curiosity and role-playing. The former category is generally less accepted than the latter. At the same time, higher level of cognitive empathy and a lower level of endorse­ment in the sphere of purity/sanctity as a foundation of moral evaluation, is a general predictor of higher acceptance of sexual behaviors in both categories. Higher level of attachment anxiety pre­dicts a higher acceptance of intrusive sexual behaviors, and a higher level of attachment avoidance predicts a lower acceptance of such behaviors. These results are discussed within the context of their importance for the future studies on childhood sexuality with parents as the potential inform­ants on behavior of their children.

Theories of autobiographical memory and narrative identity allow us to assume that childhood memory is represented in the mind of an adult person as a comprehensive period with its own unique characteristics that is subjected to changes during the lifespan. Based on the concept of the global coherence of life history, it was assumed that in later periods of life, childhood memories will be more elaborate and thus cognitively more accessible as well as organized temporally and logically in a more coherent story.

The use of narrative interview revealed differences between early, middle and late adulthood in the way the childhood memories are organized, as well as in the age-independent characteristics of the perceived childhood. The obtained results suggest that in late adulthood, childhood is recalled more extensively and more memories are logically organized, which is attributed to greater attention to the past resulting from the task of life summary. Regardless of the age of the respondents, less than half of the memories related logically to each other, with most of the text consisting of separate scenes not located in time. These findings raised the issue of the specificity of childhood memory and the universality of global coherence of life stories.

The presented research examined the relationship between the use of knowledge, the development level of higher cognitive functions and the type of education. Research was conducted on two groups of third grade students: homeschoolers and public school students (28 children in each of the groups). Students were paired by sex and factors connected to the family environment. Ability to operate knowledge was tested by The original Reading Comprehension Test and the level of development of executive functions (inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility and planning) was measured by a set of tasks from Inquisit computer program. Results show that homeschoolers use and utilize their knowledge better than public school students. They comprehend meaning of words more efficiently, understand cause-effect relations better and use relations of superiority-inferiority more efficiently. However, the results connected with executive functions do not show any dominance of any of groups. Ability of inhibition and planning is similar for homeschoolers and public students. Public school students have higher level of memory development whereas homeschoolers dominate in the category of flexibility. The presented results are material for a discussion on the role of the educational system in the development of late childhood students. They can also be used to consider the assessment of the value of home education.

An analysis of emotional functioning of deaf people is important for understanding their activities in different areas of life. Emotional functioning is related to emotional intelligence, which involves emotion perception and recognition as well as emotional expressiveness. The aim of the study was to compare the ability to recognize facial emotional expression among deaf and hearing people.

The present study was conducted on 80 individuals (40 deaf people and 40 hearing people). The Emotional Intelligence Scale – Faces (Matczak, Piekarska, Studniarek, 2005) and a set of photographs used by Paul Ekman in his study of basic emotions were used for the data collection.

The results obtained show that deaf people differ from hearing people in recognizing facial expressions. The analysis was conducted in terms of differences in recognition of expression of basic and complex emotions. The study included variables such as the moment of hearing loss (congenital or acquired deafness) or upbringing with deaf or hearing parents.

The article presents theoretical assumptions and summarizes the results of research on the Circumplex of Identity Formation Modes. The model was created as an attempt to synthesize knowledge on identity formation gathered in the stream of research initiated by James E. Marcia (1966), based on the Erik H. Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial development. In the model: (1) the key concept is the identity formation mode, (2) traditional categories of exploration and commitment have been redefined and used as basic axes to distinguish eight identity formation modes, between which relationships are precisely defined in accordance with the rules of the circumplex model, (3) due to redefinition of exploration and commitment, the model can be used in research on personal identity in various developmental periods, and (4) the place of identity variables in the personality structure has been precisely defined. Circumplex of Identity Formation Modes was introduced to international literature and research on its verification and usefulness was conducted (Cieciuch, Topolewska, 2017; Topolewska, Cieciuch, 2017; Topolewska-Siedzik, Cieciuch, 2018, 2019; Topolewska-Siedzik, Cieciuch, Strus, 2019).

This article aims to present analysis of possible actions of kindergarten teachers and other specialists working with emotionally neglected children. The first part of the text includes definition of emotional neglect and information about the symptoms observed in emotionally neglected child. The short term and long term consequences of emotional neglect in group of children aged 3–6 were shortly described. The characteristics enabling recognition of emotional neglect and diagnostic procedures facilitating identification of a problem by teachers and kindergarten specialists were given. Basic cues concerning the work with emotionally neglected child that can be accomplished in kindergarten, including description of basic behavioral techniques, were presented. The cues for working with neglecting parent were also given. The article serves as a preliminary set of indicators for working with emotionally neglected children.

This study was designed to examine relationships between adolescents’empathy and aggression and parental attitudes. Two hundred and one high school students aged 16-18 completed the Polish Retrospective Parental Attitude Questionnaire, Interpersonal Reactivity Index and the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire. Results showed that paternal attitudes have a great influence on the level of aggression in children, either raising (inconsistency and excessive demands) or lowering it (acceptance and autonomy). In contrast, the role played by empathy is considerably lower and only supports the relationship between parental attitudes and level of aggression. It also turned out that empathy partly plays the role of a mediator between fathers‘parental attitudes and the level of aggression in adolescents.

The subject of the studies was to indicate whether there is a relationship between the time perception of older people and their psychological well-being. The study included 238 persons aged 60 years and older. To collect data, the following tools of psychological measurement were applied: Psychological Well-Being Scale (SDP) and The Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZPTI). It has been proven that the past positive time perspective is the one that best characterizes a given group. Numerous statistically significant relationships between particular time perspectives and psychological well-being have been demonstrated, both in their global area and in their individual dimensions.

Playing poker might become an addictive activity. Therefore, it belongs to risky behaviours that are willingly exhibited particularly by persons in their adolescence. In the form of a professional game, poker can also be a way to delay the moment of becoming an adult. The prevalence of poker was checked among 2054 men in two age groups: persons in their adolescence (19–24 years old) and early adulthood (25–30 years old). Contrary to the expectations, the number of poker players is higher in the group of older respondents. The level of risk of problem gambling among poker players, assessed with the CPGI questionnaire, is similar in both groups, although in case of the young adults, the number of persons showing no symptoms of problem gambling is higher. The results were discussed in the context of the available literature and in relation to the phenomena characteristic of the separated development phases.

The article addresses the issue of different categories of psychological crises. The main thesis of the work formulates the belief that feeling of loneliness (consisting of three dimensions: a feeling of social, emotional and existential loneliness) in crisis states is an important moderator (predictor) of their course and ultimately psychological consequences. In the theoretical layer, the problem raised here is based on the assumptions of life-span developmental psychology theory, and in the empirical layer refers to the results of a number of research projects in which a sense of loneliness among other numerous variables has been given the status of predictor. The results of the projects show that taking the feeling of loneliness into account provides a better insight into the direct or indirect consequences of psychological crises with different characteristics. This matters not only theoretically, but also practically. On the one hand, it raises awareness of the course and psychological consequences of crises caused by various risks, losses and relational deficits. On the other hand, it advocates the use of proprietary tools to measure feelings of loneliness: (SBS-C, 8–13 years), adolescents (SBS, 12–19 years), and adults (SBS-AD and SBS-ADC) (Dołęga, 2020).

The concept of the MEANING OF LIFE operates in language as a polysemantic structure which must be seen against the background of philosophical, anthropological, theological, psychological, pedagogical, sociological and cultural concepts. The question about the MEANING OF LIFE, which includes the search for the essence and purpose of human existence, the human vocation, the reasons for making an effort to live and for why it is worth living, constitutes one of the crucial questions of various philosophical and religious systems, and attempts to answer it bear evidence to the wealth of the humanistic knowledge and reflection on human life. The concept of the MEANING OF LIFE is extremely vague in its nature, and it may also be included among the religious concepts that concern the reality which cannot be captured empirically. The author analyzes lexicographical sources, literature on the subject, resources of the National Corpus of Polish and the results of a survey carried out among Polish language speakers. The description of the concept of the MEANING OF LIFE, made by analyzing representative words and linguistic constructions that fall within it, as well as numerous psychological concepts, leads to indicating basic conceptual categories contributing to the concept today and to showing how the concept of the MEANING OF LIFE is currently expressed in Polish and in the humanities.

The article presents the results of own research whose purpose was to answer the question whether screen time is related to the level of creative activity of preschool children. The relationship between creative activity and the possession of electronic devices by preschool children was also examined. 32 children aged 5 years and 1 month to 6 years and 11 months and their parents took part in the research conducted in 2018. The research tools used were: (1) The Test for Creative Thinking – Drawing Production (TCT-DP) Form A of Urban and Jellen (1996) in the Polish adaptation of Matczak, Jaworowska, Stańczak (2000), (2) Questionnaire for parents and teachers: How creative is the child? and (3) Questionnaire regarding the use of multimedia devices by preschool children. The obtained results indicate a relationship between screen time and the level of creative activity of preschool children. Studies show that the amount of free time spent with a multimedia device by a child after returning from kindergarten correlates negatively with the various dimensions of creative thinking. Children who more often play without using multimedia devices show greater creative ability manifested in the child’s basic forms of activity during this period: play, art and language activities.

The presented study aimed at determining the school readiness of first-grade pupils by scores of standardised competence tests and the subjective assessment of mothers, checking possibilities to differentiate the results of preschoolers and pupils and correlations of both measurement methods. The Intelligence and Development Scales (IDS) and the Questionnaire of Subjective School Readiness Assessment by Parents (KGSD-R), with subscales analogous to those of IDS, were used. The three studied groups involved 36 first-grade pupils, 34 older pre-schoolers, and 34 younger pre-schoolers. The average scores of the pupils on all the IDS subscales point to their sufficient school readiness. Objective (IDS) and subjective results (KGSD-R) differentiated the children’s results into high and low, however, the correlations for the pre-schoolers were few and low, and for pupils – not statistically significant.

The aim of the study is to establish whether there exists a relationship between temperamental predispositions and the use of imagery, as well as to examine temperamental traits as predictors of imagery use in children practising various sports. The study involved 82 children (boys and girls) aged 7–11, as well as 82 parents. The participants filled in the Sport Imagery Questionnaire for Children (SIQ-C), in the Polish adaptation of D. Budnik-Przybylska and K. Karasiewicz, and the EAS Temperament Questionnaire by Arnold H. Buss and Robert Plomin (1984) in the Polish adaptation of Włodzimierz Oniszczenko. The research confirmed a significant relationship between temperamental traits and the use of imagery, as well as indicated temperamental predictors of the use of imagery in sport. The article presents the detailed results of the study.

This study aims at investigating the relationship between the health locus of control and social support and life satisfaction in late adulthood. It was intended to investigate which dimension of health control dominates in the respondents and whether it is related to the frequency of medical visits, education, living alone or with relatives, subjective assessment of health as well as perceived social support and life satisfaction. It was also examined whether there are differences in the health locus of control between people with secondary and higher education. The study was conducted among 85 people aged 60 to 79: students of a Third Age University and participants of the PLinEU Senior Activity Centre. The research results indicate that it is the internal health locus of control that dominates in the respondents, which is related to the number of medical visits and living alone. There was a significant positive relationship between the internal health locus of control and subjective assessment of health. Differences between people with secondary and higher education in the health locus of control were demonstrated. There was no relationship between the health locus of control and social support and life satisfaction.

Psychological research has a serious problem with replicability. Several collaborative replication initiatives in cognitive and social psychology try to address such issues. Situation in developmental research is exceptionally challenging due to the difficulties in performing experiments, limitation of objective measurement methods, and small samples. The ManyBabies project is a multi-laboratory large-scale effort that gives a chance to provide more robust, replicable results in infancy research. After a brief discussion of the problems in psychological research the ManyBabies project is introduced and the MetaLab tools for statistical analysis of collaborative data at the meta-level are presented, using two examples in early language acquisition that are of particular interest to our lab: native and non-native vowel discrimination. 

The aim of the research was to assess the role of self-esteem and cognitive appraisal of a conflict in generating  destructive and constructive strategies of coping used by adolescents in social conflict situations. The following research tools have been used in the research: the Self-Esteem Scale (SES) developed by M. Rosenberg, adapted by M. Łaguna, K. Lachowicz-Tabaczek, and I. Dzwonkowska; the Stress Appraisal Questionnaire (SAQ) (Polish: KOS – Kwestionariusz Oceny Stresu) by D. Włodarczyk and K. Wrześniewski; as well as the Questionnaire for the study of adolescents’coping strategies employed in social conflict situations (Polish: KSMK – Kwestionariusz strategii radzenia sobie młodzieży w sytuacji konfliktu społecznego) developed by D. Borecka-Biernat. The empirical research was carried out in middle schools (Polish: gimnazjum). The research involved 893 adolescents (468 girls and 425 boys) aged 13–15. Analysis of research results indicates that in the case of adolescents, lower assessment of one’s capacities and the appraisal of conflict in terms of threat or harm/loss, generally coincides with the tendency to react destructively when faced with a conflict. The research has also  indicated that an adolescent with higher self-esteem, when involved in a conflict that is not assessed as threatening, implements a constructive strategy to cope with the situation. 

The main objective of the study was to check for the existence of the effect of short-term exposure to fiction in the area of mentalization abilities (Kidd, Castano, 2013), taking into account the spontaneous versus explicit aspect of these abilities. An additional aim was to verify the hypothesis that at the root of this phenomenon lies the process of imaginary simulation. In the first part of the study, participants (N = 103, aged 18 to 25) were randomly assigned to one of four groups: (1) reading literary fiction, (2) listening to the same story as the first group, and at the same time imagining the events presented in it, (3) reading popular fiction, and (4) not reading any story. In the second part of the study, all participants completed mentalization tests, a test checking familiarity with fiction, and the questionnaire on practices of reading books, magazines and watching television. The study showed no significant differences between the groups in the results of mentalization tests, even under conditions conducive to imaginary simulation. Familiarity with fiction proved to be a positive predictor of spontaneous mentalization, and exposure to television was a negative predictor of explicit mentalization. The findings lead to the conclusion that short-term exposure to fiction does not lead to a significant increase in spontaneous or explicit mentalization. However, both aspects of mentalization are connected with more long-term factors that are expressed in familiarity with fiction and exposure to television.

The aim of the study was to analyze whether the individual dimensions of resilience and attachment are related to the quality of relationships with parents of people with schizophrenia and the indication of mediators determining the quality of these relationships. 50 participants took part in the study. The average age of the respondents was 49 years. Measurements of independent variables were made using Experiences in Close Relationships Revised by Chris Fraley, Kelly Brennan, and Neils Waller, in the Polish adaptation by Cezary Wiśniewski (2011); and Lifespan Individual Resilience Scale (pl) (LIRS (pl)) in the Polish adaptation of Malina, Pooley, and Harms (2016). The quality of the relationship was measured using The Quality Relationship Inventory in the Polish adaptation of Dorota Suwalska-Barancewicz, Paweł Izdebski, and Hanna Liberska (2015). The results confirmed the existence of significant, strong relationship between discrete resilience dimensions and the quality of relationship with parents. The research also confirmed that there is a significant relationship between the dimensions of resilience and the dimensions of attachment and between the dimensions of attachment and the quality of relationships with parents. It also turned out that the level of resilience is an important mediator between attachment and perceived support from parents. 

The main problem of this study is the assessment of the relationship between the level of parentification experienced during adolescence and the intensity of identity-related senses in young adulthood. We took into account three main types of parentification: emotional, instrumental, and perceived unfairness of the role reversal experience and the identity-related senses described by Pilarska (2012, 2016). 181 people aged 19–30 participated in the study, including 95 women. The participants completed the following measures: Filial Responsibility Scale-Adult (past form) (Jurkovic, Thirkield, 1999), the Multidimensional Questionnaire of Identity (Pilarska, 2015), and a demographic survey whose main purpose was to indicate possible risk factors running in the participants’families, such as, disability of family members, chronic somatic or mental illness, addiction, chronic absence, divorce or death of a parent. Results confirmed a higher level of parentification in the risk factor group in comparison with the control group, and the lack of such differences with regard to identity-related senses. The lower level of the sense of one’s own boundaries characterized the group with the higher intensity of emotional and instrumental parentification. The lower level of the three identity-related senses (of one’s own boundaries, of having inner contents, and of self-worth) was noticeable in the group with a higher score on each parentification dimension. The latter result indicates clear negative effects of parentification associated with its perceived unfairness.

The purpose of our research was to check whether young women diagnosed with polycystic ovary syndrome differ in the perception of their body image and sense of quality of life from the general population of women. A total of 80 participants were examined, divided into two equally numerous groups: with and without PCOS. Three research tools were used: a personal questionnaire, the Bodily Self Questionnaire (Scale J-C) and the WHOQOL-BREF Questionnaire. It was demonstrated that women with PCOS are characterized by a less positive body image and report a significantly lower quality of life compared to healthy women. There was a strong relationship between body image and quality of life in the study group of women suffering from polycystic ovary syndrome.

Development of self-representation is vitally important for internalizing typical behavior and for building interpersonal relationships. Taking into account the neuronal underpinnings of cognitive functions, symptoms of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have been related to impairments of neuronal systems underlying self-perception. The present paper reviews research implementing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG) to study the neural mechanisms of self-related information processing in persons with ASD. These experiments address the psychological aspects of self-representation associated with the appraisal of one’s own traits and of the symbolic, as well as physical, representation of self in response to the perception of one’s own name and face. Furthermore, results of a study that employed fMRI to assess the perception of changeability of personal traits across time among subjects with ASD are also included. The studies under review support the hypotheses of atypical neuronal mechanisms of cognitive self-representation and anomalous perception of social feedback in persons diagnosed with ASD.

The presented research analyses the relationship between resilience, the mother–child bond, and the life satisfaction of young mothers. The assumption regarding the importance of resilience in taking on parental responsibilities was drawn from studies indicating the protective effect of individual resilience in difficult situations. It was assumed that resilience could work as a buffer between the mother–child bond and maternal life satisfaction. For measuring resilience the Lifespan Individual Resilience Scale in the adaptation of Malina, Pooley, Harms (2016) was used. The Mother–Child Bond Tool in the Bielawska-Batorowicz adaptation (2006) was used to assess the quality of relationship with the child. Satisfaction with life was evaluated using the Satisfaction with Life Scale in the adaptation of Juczyński (2009). The study participants were 340 women in early adulthood who have at least one child under the age of 2. Research indicates that resilience as well as particular aspects of the mother–child bond are important for maternal life satisfaction. It was also established that resilience plays a mediative role between the mother –child bond and the life satisfaction of the mother.

Coping flexibility is one of the crucial traits determining individual adaptive ability, which is associated with precise adjustment to environmental requirements in a stressful situation. One of the elements that assist in this adjustment is coping flexibility which relies on finding a strategy appropriate for the particular circumstances in which it is to be applied. People who are flexible in coping are characterized by sensitivity to subtle signals coming from the environment, which allow them to change their behavior and act in a more adaptive way. Flexibility in coping has not yet been studied in the Western population of children and adolescents. Due to the lack of methods that could record all signs of flexibility, it was reasonable to start work on a questionnaire that would measure this construct. To provide an equivalent to the Flexibility of Coping with Stress Questionnaire (FCSQ-14) for adults, the Flexibility of Coping with Stress Questionnaire for Adolescents (FCSQ-14A) was developed. Based on the results of pilot studies, assessment of competent judges (CVR < .6), and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) a tool containing 14 items –which examines three dimensions of flexibility: a repertoire of coping strategies, coping competence, and reflexivity –was created. The psychometric properties of the final version of the questionnaire were verified in terms of reliability and validity on a group of adolescents (N = 288), ages 14 to 20 (M = 16.50, SD = 1.58), in accordance with validation standards. The results showed that FCQ-14A is a valid and reliable method: most values of Cronbach’s αcoefficients exceed the value of .7, absolute stability is satisfactory, as is both the internal and external validity. The results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) in a group of adolescents for a three-factor solution showed that the model is adjusted to the data on an acceptable level (RMSEA = .057; GFI = .94; AGFI = .92).

This study assesses the relationship between psychological well-being and life attitudes among older adults, while also providing a psychological analysis of life review questionnaires of 148 participants over 60 years of age (99 female). Quantitative research was conducted by means of Reker’s Life Attitudes Profile (LAP) and the Scales of Psychological Well-Being (PWB) by Ryff and Singer. The results confirmed the hypothesis that psychological well-being and life attitudes are positively correlated. Qualitative data were gathered by means of Life Review Interview (LRI). Selfnarratives of senior citizens (n = 70), both older adults (60–69) and the elderly (70–101), revealed the predominance of topics related to life values, attitudes toward life and death, and changes during the course of life. Participants who assessed their life positively in LRI obtained higher scores in Environmental Mastery and Personal Growth than participants who assessed their life negatively or ambivalently; no differences were observed in life attitudes between these two groups.

Having a passion is becoming an increasingly popular phenomenon. The aim of the study was to describe passion in subsequent human development periods and to examine whether age, sex, and education were significant factors in the process. Furthermore, it was assessed if passion results for passionate and obsessive enthusiasts (1412 people took part in the study) were differentiated by these variables. To assess harmonious passion and obsessive passion, the Passion Scale was used along with passion criteria. The development phase, gender, and education differentiated only the obsessive passion results. For the harmonious and obsessive passionate, these variables did not differentiate the result of the main dimension of passion. Gender and education differentiated the nature of passion. The most popular passions of both harmonious and obsessive nature were those associated with free time. The content and intensity of passion can be a marker of adaptation to the development tasks currently encountered by people of a given age, sex, or education. Depending on its nature, passion can be both a catalyst and an obstacle in overcoming subsequent developmental conflicts.

The article presents the development of the attachment bond in romantic relationships and its main characteristics by comparison to child–caregiver attachment. The description of the developmental process begins with infant attachment styles, traces it through the adolescence period, finally accounting for how the attachment bond develops in adults engaged in romantic relationships. Similarities and differences between child and adult attachment styles are pointed out.

Civic participation has significant meaning for building internal resources of the individuals and is an important development task for them. In this article, which has theoretical and overview character, we present current knowledge of childhood and adolescence experience on civic behaviors in adulthood. We will deep-dive into the phenomenon of citizenship and it’s psychological perspective. Later on, we present current studies on psychological determinants of citizenship activity of young people including their personality resources, relationship with their surroundings and institutions, as well as demography and socio-economic status. At the end we focus on early experience influence on citizenship activity in adulthood. In the summary section we describe threads for future researches on citizenship of children and youngsters. 

The article presents two non-pharmacological therapeutic methods applied to people in late adulthood: “Montessori for Seniors” by Cameron Camp (Stroińska, 2017; Stroińska, 2018) and “Joy of learning throughout life” by Christine Mitterlechner (Dudek, 2018). The study presents a practical dimension of their application in the development and rehabilitation of the elderly, with varying degrees of cognitive difficulty. Presented views of montessorian geragogy are derived from the pedagogy of Maria Montessori, but they focus on other aspects of this method. “Montessori for Seniors” puts the focus of daily activities and appropriate adaptation of the environment to enable the elderly (also with dementia) to function independently. In “Joy of learning” the main area of issues is sensory stimulation and the proper structure of classes conducive to neurocognitive rehabilitation. Although the scope and impact of the two methods are different, they can be used complementarily in working with the elderly because their common goal, although implemented in other ways, is to support the development and learning of seniors and counteract the effects of cognitive deterioration. 

The aim of the study was to identify factors that may participate in the relationship between the character of the bond created in childhood and the development of anhedonia in adult life.

A questionnaire survey on attachment style, sensitivity to stress, learned helplessness, level of anhedonia and perceived social support was carried out. The study was attended by 163 participants, aged between 19 and 36. 

The results confirmed the hypothesized relationship between the character of bonds formed in childhood and the development of anhedonia in adulthood. The secure attachment and the perception of instrumental support, especially emotional support, are factors related to reducing the risk of developing anhedonia. The factor that conduces the development of anhedonia is, above all, attachment of the insecure character. Research shows that the character of the bond created in childhood is important for the mental health of the individual, social functioning and the possessed skills and personal resources. 

Researchers of both contemporary family problems and statistical data point many important changes in family life. Among these, a significant place is occupied by the emergence of alternative forms of family life and transformation in the area of parenting (Dolińska, 2014; Golombok, 2015; Kemkes-Grottenthaler, 2003; Kwak, 2014; Mynarska 2009). Over the past years, the number of postponements or resignations from parental tasks has been increasing (CBOS, 2013b; GUS, 2016).

The purpose of this research was to explore the functioning of family of origin of spouses who did not undertake parental tasks. The study involved 210 people (105 women and 105 men) in early adulthood in legalized relationships, and the final analysis included results obtained from 170 people. The criterion group consisted of spouses who did not undertake parental tasks (76 persons) with minimum marital status of three years. The control group (94 persons) consisted of spouses of at least one child with a minimum marriage of three years. 

The following research tools were used: Survey Questionnaire (own elaboration), Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scale Faces IV in Polish adaptation by Margasiński (2013). Studies have shown that spouses who do not take parental tasks assess their family of origin in a different way than spouses having children. These differences concerned the assessment of flexibility. However, the difference in the assessment of cohesion of families of origin occurred between women and men from the criterion group. The analyzes carried out showed that one and the other study group assesses their current family better than the family of origin. 

The aim of the research was to verify whether persons with dyslexia differ from those without it in terms of level of achievement motivation and retrospective assessment of teachers` behavior and to define the relationship between the achievement motivation of adults and their retrospective assessment of teachers` behaviors. The study was carried out on 435 adults with (227) or without (208) diagnosed dyslexia, aged 20–30, with the use of socio-demographic survey (Survey-2) enabling to obtain information about retrospective assessment of teachers’ behaviors – 3) Inventory of Achievement Motivation (LMI) by Schuler et al. in the Polish adaptation of Klinkosz and Sękowski. Research does not draw a distinction between adults with and without dyslexia in terms of level of achievement motivation. The teachers` behaviors in terms of support, assistance and appreciation of the student were evaluated less favourably by people with dyslexia. There are significant differences between groups within the relationship between the perception of motivating teachers and self-confidence as a dimension of achievement motivation. There are significant differences between groups within the relationship between the perception of teacher appreciation and self-confidence as a dimension of achievement motivation – this relationship is statistically significant in adults with dyslexia. 

The study sought to investigate the relationship between time perspectives (TP) and the life satisfaction (LS) of young adults with the moderation effect of two dimensions of the sense of adulthood as a task and as a limitation The study involved 208 people aged 19–35 years (M = 23,45; SD = 3,17) who filled out the Sense of Adulthood Scale of Zagórska, The Satisfaction with Life Scale of Juczyński, and the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. As predicted, the effect of moderation was obtained in three models, where the dependent variable was life satisfaction – in the case of a negative past perspective and deviation from the balanced time perspective and adulthood perceived as a limitation, as well as in relation to the past positive perspective and adulthood perceived as a task.

The traditional theories of theory-of-mind development – modularist nativism, theory theory, and the two-systems theory – share a common model of mental representation. According to that model, the normative content of representation is encoded in its physical vehicle. In the present article, I point out that this claim entails the view that representation cannot emerge out of non-representational phenomena. This leads to the need of positing foundational mental content – foundationalism – and viewing cognitive development only as a reconfi guration of the innately given representations. As a result, all three models are forced to claim innate mental content, although only the modular nativists explicitly acknowledge it. Further, the idea that mental content is innate faces its own challenges: nativism does not seem to be a tenable position in either the “biological” or “psychological” sense of the term. I argue that nativism is a symptom of theoretical limitations, not a legitimate division of labor between psychology and other sciences.

The basic aim of our theoretical and research activity is to prepare a research procedure and a theoretical basis for such procedure directed at diagnosing three possible ways of responding to trauma (absence of adaptation, adaptation and post-traumatic development) among people who were mentally stable before experiencing trauma. In subject literature, traumatic responses are most often described by grouping into three categories: absence of adaptation, adaptation, and post-traumatic growth (development). In our case study, we introduce two examined women, who had in common the type of traumas experienced. They are women between 29 and 32 years old (young adults) whose child had died in the last 3 to 5 years. We have therefore focused not on the description of individual steps in carrying out a single case diagnosing reaction to trauma, but on the presentation of preparing procedure for such a study, i.e. the description of consecutive steps that led us from the fi rst question: what model will we use for the analysis of response to trauma and why this model and not the other one? – to the last question: what set of methods will we use to investigate the response to trauma and why this one as opposed to some other? In this case study, we present ensuing answers to the questions raised together with their rationale, dilemmas and doubts accompanying their formulation.

Phenomenological-existential psychology assumes that the human identity consists of the subjectively experienced meanings, inscribed in the system of meanings and senses present in the world in which he or she lives. Human can defi ne and recognize his/her world of subjective meanings through narration and dialogue, and the form of self-narration refl ects the shape of his/her identity (Ricoeur, 1992; McAdams, 1993; Riessman, 2008; Gergen, Gergen, 2011). Analysis and interpretation of the story in terms of these meanings, which are manifestations of human subjectivity, seems to be the most effective when undertaken in the hermeneutic approach. The article indicates the advantages of this method, illustrating its effectiveness in relation to the analysis and interpretation of the stories of people in the senior age about life-important experiences. Self-narratives were obtained through a modifi ed version of the autobiographical-narrative interview according to the German sociologist Fritz Schütze (2007; Kaźmierska, Schütze, 2013). Content interpretation has been verifi ed by its evaluation by the subjects. The presented analysis of two out of ten self-narratives obtained allowed to discover the subjective world of meanings of the subjects, deepen the knowledge about the subjective nature of human life, as well as verify the effectiveness of the applied method.

According to the Erikson’s theory, personality development is associated with a positive resolution of developmental confl icts, appearing in stages, as a result of human interaction with the social and culture world. People in late adulthood are faced with the diffi cult task of finding a balance between the syntonic and dystonic feature of ego – integrity and despair – having a chance to develop life wisdom, deciding how to perceive themselves, other people and the surrounding world. The aim of this paper is to present and discuss predictors of psychosocial integrity in the late adulthood. Psychosocial integrity was a dependent variable, while the level of basic hope, level of depression and anxiety as a trait and selected sociodemographic data – were independent variables. The study of elderly people (N = 152) used the Measures of the Psychosocial Development (MPD) by G. Hawley (polish adaptation: Z. Uchnast), the Basic Hope Inventory (BHI-12) by J. Trzebiński and M. Zięba, the Hospital Scale of Anxiety and Depression (HADS) by A.S. Zigmond and R.P. Snaith (polish adaptation: K. de Walden-Gałuszko and M. Majkowicz) and the Sociodemographic Data Sheet, designed by the authors of the study. It  has been proved that the level of psychosocial integrity depends mainly on the level of basic hope, but it is also determined by the level of education of the respondents, which is  important for the perceived level of anxiety and depression.

The aim of the research was to describe the relationship between attitudes toward globalization and life satisfaction and identity processes in the group of young adults. The sample included of 403 people at the age of 19–35 (M = 22.84, SD = 2.81), 219 women (54.3%) and 184 men. The relations were measured with the use of three questionnaires: Questionnaire of Attitudes Toward Globalization (Senejko, Łoś, 2016), Questionnaire of Identity Formation by A. Oleszkowicz, A. Słowińska (referring to the Dual-Cycle Model of Identity Formation by Luyckx et al., 2006) and SWLS Questionnaire (Diener et. al., 1985). Data analysis was based on structural equation modeling. The research results indicate a lack of direct relationship between attitudes toward globalization and life satisfaction. It was established that all of the identity processes differentiate the level of life satisfaction. The most powerful predictor of life satisfaction is a refl ective exploration in depth. In the relation of attitudes toward globalization – life satisfaction, identity processes are mediators. The anxiety attitude toward globalization is in strong relationship with ruminative exploration processes. Critical attitude is in relationship with refl ective exploration in breadth and depth and identifi cation with commitment. The accepting attitude is in relationship with a refl ective exploration in breadth and depth.

The main aim of the study was to analyse the cross-reference between individualised means of experiencing a disease (assessment of its signifi cance), as determined by the level of disability and selected psychosocial factors, and the period of life of patients with Multiple Sclerosis. The following were used in the study: Disease-Related Appraisals Scale, Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale, Expanded Disability Status Scale EDSS and the original questionnaire on sociodemographic characteristics. The study showed that patients with a chronic disease show a statistically signifi cant differentiation in terms of the meaning attributed to disease as the benefi t and obstacle. Moreover, the age of the patients under study also shows differentiation with respect to the signifi cance of particular factors for the means of experiencing the disease (assessment of its signifi cance). The fi ndings obtained in the course of the present study indicate the importance of unique and typical determinants of functioning of patients with Multiple Sclerosis, as well as point to the signifi cance of the factor of age which should be taken into account in the work of interdisciplinary teams providing care to this population of patients.

The aim of the considerations is to present the usefulness of the construct of “parenting competence” according to the understanding of Teti and Huang (2004) in research on the role of parenting infl uence in child development. Through a critical analysis of defi nitions of such concepts as “parental attitude” or “parenting style,” the construct of parenting competence (PC) will be shown as allowing for a more precise, and at the same time, coherent and comprehensive characteristics of the most important components of parenting. PC will be presented as a construct which contains three important elements of parenting, namely: parental warmth, control and quality of communication. By  presenting the potential usefulness of this construct, we will show that PC can be treated as a kind of social competence possessed by the parent. PC makes it possible to analyze parenting in the context of parent-child interaction, and at the same time takes into account the variability of parenting, which is culturally conditioned and, in this context, is strongly related to the developmental period, i.e., the child’s age.

Positive psychology points out the relation between experiencing the state of engagement in life, including social engagement, and the feeling of happiness and contentment in seniors. The purpose of the conducted study was to search for the relationship between the well-being of older adults and their individual life motives which were operationalized on the basis of the Japanese cultural phenomenon of ikigai.
The participants in the study were seniors from three groups: members of the Active Senior Club, students of The Third Age University and inmates of a Care and Therapy In-patient Department (N = 138). The sense of meaning of life, satisfaction with life and resiliency were measured. Additionally, the participants were asked a question concerning the value they ascribed to their own life.
The results of the study indicate that the seniors who declare they possess an individual life  motive are generally more satisfi ed with their life and consider it to have more meaning. Senior citizens who are active in areas such as education or culture also present a higher level in those areas.

The study aimed to analyze the role of attachment in the formation of chronic selfdestructive tendency. It was hypothesized that high levels of attachment anxiety and avoidance impair self-care functions and limit capacities for self-control, which may then lead to the development of an indirect self-destructive personality pattern. The study was conducted among 137 young adults, using the Chronic Self-Destructiveness Scale, Experiences in Close Relationships Scale, Self-Control Scale and Self-Care Competence Questionnaire. The obtained results showed that the relationship between anxiety about rejection and chronic self- -destructiveness was only indirect – its infl uence was primarily through self-control and partly also through self-care functions. With regard to avoidance of intimacy, the analysis revealed it had both direct and mediated effects (through self-care functions and self-control) on chronic self-destructiveness.

With regard to human, life history theory postulates the existence of a continuum of reproductive life history strategies (LHS): fast strategy–slow strategy. Earlier studies show that the personality dimensions of the Big Five and worldview are correlated with LHS. In the present study we tested the hypothesis that the dimensions of the Big Five are mediators between LHS and worldview. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the model in a sample of 259 participants; additionally, the moderating role of the sex variable was included. In accordance with the hypothesis, the dimensions of the Big Five turned out to be mediators between LHS and worldview. The analysis of moderated mediation showed a signifi cant role of the sex variable in the tested model. According to the assumptions of life history theory, this indicates the role of early childhood experiences in shaping the worldview, however, the role of sex in relation to the diversity of these experiences and their impact on shaping reproductive strategies requires further research

The goal of the research was to fi nd relationship between perceived social support and psychological well-being among young people, and to verify if the growth mindset is a mediator of this relationship. The research was also aimed to examine whether there are differences between young people being reared in an orphanage and those who are not, in terms of measured variables. The study included 198 participants, aged 15 to 22 (M = 18.35; SD = 1.12), 46% females. The Interpersonal Support Evaluation List, the Psychological Well-Being Scale and the Implicit Theories Scale were used. The perceived social support positively correlates with psychological well-being. The growth mindset is not a mediator in this relationship, although it positively correlates with both variables. Young people being reared in an orphanage display a stronger growth mindset than young people not being reared in an orphanage.

The article presents the results of research on the locus of control in early adolescence among students from two different stages of education: primary school and junior high school, participating currently in the education system transformations. The results are a summary of the fi rst stage of a longitudinal project concerning the development of some personality variables among students. 1015 adolescents were examined with Locus of Control Questionnaire (Krasowicz-Kupis, Kurzyp-Wojnarska, 1990), in the school year 2016/2017. The results indicate an indefinite locus of control in situations of successes, failures and in generalized locus of control. The locus of control is shifted significantly more towards external control in students from junior high school, compared to primary school students and it pertains to successes, failures and generalized locus of control. Boys from primary schools are signifi cantly more internal as regards successes and generalized locus of control compared to boys from junior high schools.

abstract. The purpose of the study was to verify whether the birth of younger siblings is associated with an increase in the number of difficult normative and non-normative behaviors in children at the toddler’s age. The study involved 68 pairs of parents with children aged 24 to 36 months. There were two groups of respondents: 1. parents of only  children (N = 36 pairs), and 2. parents with two children (N = 32 pairs). Individual variables concerning children were analyzed: the intensity of adverse behaviors and the intensity of rebellious behaviors related to the crisis of the second and third year of life. These variables were measured with the Questionnaire for Child Behavior in the Age of 1.5–5 years (CBCL) and the Behavior Scale of 2–3 years. The analysis of the obtained data has shown that the only children manifest more non-normative behaviors than their peers who have a younger sibling. Girls who played the role of an older sister showed slightly more undesirable behaviors than their peers. The results of the above studies allowed  to determine that the birth of younger siblings is associated with the occurrence of more non-normative behaviors differently for girls and boys.

The aim of the study was to search for the personality and family predictors of an aggressive coping strategy of adolescents in the social confl ict situation. The following tools were applied: Danuta Borecka-Biernat’s Questionnaire to Study Strategies for Coping with a Social Conflict Situation by Adolescents (KSMK), Stress Evaluation Questionnaire (KOS) by Dorota Włodarczyk and Kazimierz Wrześniewski, Morris Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), Questionnaire to Study a Sense of Control (KBPK) by Grażyna Krasowicz and Anna Kurzyp-Wojnarska, Three-Factor State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (TISCO) by Charles Spielberg and K. Wrześniewski, Parental Attitudes Scale (SPR) by Mieczysław Plopa, and Questionnaire to Investigate Strategies for Coping with a Social Confl ict Situation by Parents in the Perception of a Child (SRwSK) by Danuta Borecka-Biernat. The empirical research was carried out in the junior high schools and comprised 893 adolescent (468 girls and 425 boys) aged 13–15. The research showed that judging the confl ict as a threat, a higher evaluation of the physical characteristics of a young person, a strong belief in the infl uence of others on the positive and negative effects of the events, and the response with anger in interpersonal situations posing a threat to ‘I’ coincide with an aggressive coping strategy of adolescents in the social confl ict situation. Moreover, the analysis of the results has shown that the adolescents’ aggressive way of reacting to emotional tension, which arises in the social confl ict situation, is shaped by the parents’ inadequate educational attitude of the emotional distance towards their adolescent child, as well as by the parents’ aggressive pattern of reacting to the confl ict.

Procrastination studies have a very short history in Poland, even though the data reveal a significant increase of procrastinators both among the students and the general population. The results of the present study concern the interrelations between age, gender, and the tendency to procrastinate. Three educational stages (junior high school, high school, and university) were taken into account.
The study was carried out with the use of the PSS questionnaire of Steel (2010) adapted by Stępień and Cieciuch with corrections suggested by Marlena Stępień and Ewa Topolewska (2014). The highest rates of procrastination were noted in the high school students and the lowest ones in the junior high school students. Moreover, the rate of procrastination behaviors was higher in girls than in boys on both those educational levels. That tendency gets reversed only on the university level and solely in the non-adaptive aspect of procrastination.

The number of elderly people in the population is constantly increasing. The seniors’ wellbeing relies heavily not only upon the activities they undertake but also on the attitude of the society toward them. Of particular importance is the attitude of the emerging adults, because it is at this stage that the process of the identity formation takes place. The aim of the study was to discover the state of knowledge, attitudes, and the frequency and quality of contacts with elderly people among the emerging adults. 180 students (87 women and 93 men) aged 18–25 (M = 22.5) participated in the study. The following tools were applied: the author’s own questionnaire to measure the contact frequency and quality, the Kogan’s Attitudes Towards Old People, and the Palmore’s Facts on Aging Quiz. Emerging adults have proven to hold ambivalent attitudes toward old people. A signifi cant correlation has been found between the knowledge and the attitudes. The frequency of contact with elderly people was negatively correlated with the intensity of the negative attitude. The quality of contact with elderly people differentiates the emerging adults’ attitudes.

This paper presents a way of conceptualization of the Levinsonian Dream in relation to fatherhood and describes its shape in men at the novice phase in the following aspects: family planning, fatherhood valuing, one’s own preparation to fatherhood, taking part in a child’s life, and the relationship between fatherhood and other men activities. Research based on the author’s own survey concerning the Dream in relation to fatherhood was conducted on a sample of 33 male students aged 22–29. Qualitative and quantitative analysis has shown a substantial differentiation of men in terms of the extension, coherence, order, and realism of the Dream in relation to their future fatherhood. Rarely it constituted the main part of a holistic Dream describing the vision of their adult life, and in most cases it contained elements derived from both traditional and modern models of the father’s role.

Studies into the determinants of marital satisfaction are today a significant research area in psychology. The investigations conducted so far involve mainly the couples at the stages of early and middle adulthood. Relatively few studies focus on identification of the factors of marital success specific to the late adulthood, on  determining the degree of similarity (fit) of spouses in terms of these factors and its impact on marital satisfaction of seniors. The purpose of this article is to identify the subject variables relevant to marital satisfaction of elderly people, both at the level of an individual and a couple. The study involved 120 participants (60 marriages) aged 60–75. We used 9 psychological methods to measure: marital satisfaction (KDM-2), life balance (KBŻ), religiousness (SRSZ), styles of coping with stress (CISS), self-esteem (SES), hope for success (KNS), location of health control (MHLC), value system (SWS), valuation crisis (KKW), and emotional intelligence (INTE). The results confirmed the complexity of the construct of marital satisfaction and allowed to identify the key predictors of happiness in marriage at old age

The article presents an educational method, colloquially called ‘time out’, from the perspective of research on the phenomenon of ostracism. Described are the theoretical models and the results of research on social exclusion. It has been shown that leaving a child in isolation can have negative emotional and behavioral effects. Possible side effects of the use of the ‘time out’ method were also presented. The discussion covers the conditions in which the use of the ‘time out’ procedure may contribute to positive effects.

The aim of the presented research was to determine whether there were connections between the dimensions of family functioning (cohesion, communication, autonomy – control, identity), behaviors of parents and the psychological syndrome of adolescent aggression (PSA). 135 adolescents, aged 16–18, were asked to complete The Family Relations Questionnaire (KRR) by Plopa and Połomski, and The Psychological Inventory of Aggression Syndrome (IPSA) by Gaś. This study has shown (1) no differences between boys and girls in the general level of PSA, (2) gender differences in the intensity of particular aggressiveness/aggression dimensions, (3) a relationship between the dimensions of family functioning and the PSA of adolescents, (4) a link between the parents` behavior in the relationship and the dimensions of the adolescents’ PSA, determined by the gender of the child and the parent. 

The authors analyze the satisfaction with life of young people in relation to the perception of the parenting techniques. 524 school and university students from the Podkarpacie region aged 13–22 were surveyed using the Inventory of Parental Discipline Techniques (IPDT) by Gała and the Student’s Life Satisfaction Scale (SLSS) by Huebner. The dominant technique used by parents is that of introduction to principles. Fathers use the technique of indifference more often than mothers. Mothers use the technique of power assertion more frequently as their children grow in age. Parenting techniques have a significant relationship with the level of life satisfaction of the adolescents and young adults, but at different stages of development different parental techniques are associated with their life satisfaction.

The aim of the study was to identify the typical features of functioning of a family with the multiple sclerosis patient as perceived by the patient and his/her spouse, as well as to identify the supposed psychosocial problems experienced by the patients and their loved ones, including the children. The presented research involved 216 people (108 families) who were divided into three groups: a criterial group (CG) and two comparative groups. Family functioning was assessed using the David Olson Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale (FACES-IV).

In the light of the performed study particularly difficult has proved to be the situation of the adult children / grown children whose parents were suffering from MS. Their families were characterized by strong emotional bonding, over-identification, high dependence and mutual loyalty (family systems strongly intertwined with each other). Excessive concentration on the family seems to be unfavorable for children with multiple sclerosis parents. While high cohesion in certain circumstances may be  adaptive, it may pose a threat to the development of the children’s autonomy and delay their entering adulthood. 

The aim of the study was to investigate the quality of communication and the factors that predict good communication in the partner relationship. 118 people (59 heterosexual couples) in the early adulthood participated in the study. The average age of the subjects was 34 years. The self-esteem of the respondents and their attachment style were considered to be important factors for the quality of partner communication measured by the Plopa Marriage Communication Questionnaire. Measurements of the independent variables were made using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale adapted by Łaguna, Dzwonkowska, and Lachowicz-Tabaczek (2008), and the Plopa Attachment Style Questionnaire.

Analyzes carried out as part of the study have confirmed to a limited extent the importance of the attachment style and the level of self-esteem for the quality of communication between partners. The study provided further empirical evidence confirming that the trustful, safe attachment is a predictor of the positive, successful, and happy dyadic relationship as opposed to the unsure bonds patterns. 

The aim of the study was the investigation of the generalized sense of self-efficacy, the intensification of health behaviors and the level of life satisfaction, as well as the analysis of the relationships between these variables in people with specific interests and knowledge related to health and its promotion. The study group consisted of 252 dietetics students. The following validated scales were used: Inventory of Health-Related Behaviors (IHRB), Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), and Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES). In the examined group the self-efficacy was significantly higher in relation to the Polish normative values. Similary, healthrelated behaviors were significantly higher in the examined group in comparison to the normative values. However, the level of satisfaction with life was comparable to that obtained in the Polish standardization studies. Further analysis revealed in the study group a weak but significant correlation between the generalized self-efficacy, the inventory of health-related behaviors, and the satisfaction with life. Dietetics students with high GSES scores had significantly greater life satisfaction, and therefore were more content with their current life and the educational choices they had made, which translate into the health-related behaviors. 

A child’s grievance usually consists in a sudden violation of the emotional attachment and a chronic feeling of the existential threat. This may have a fundamental impact on the further development of the child. Unfortunately, the scarcity of research on the subject, both concerning the perception of the child itself and the process of grief, often involves not only the diagnostic difficulties, but also the selection of therapeutic procedures that can be discussed in terms of evidence-based programs. The subject of this article is a critical review of the theoretical positions related to child mourning, including its complex and traumatic nature.

When John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) conducted their experiment upon conditioned emotional response in Little Albert, they probably didn’t realize that their study would become one of the most popular but also controversial experiments in psychology. Despite its contemporary meaning, the study was only part of a broader scientific project exploring the development of instincts and reflexes in human infants. Moreover, it surely wasn’t planned to be a final report of Watson’s research. Constant interest about the unexplained fate of Little Albert has recently resulted in two scientific historical investigations, which have interpreted his identity and developmental level in different and inconsistent ways. This paper presents outcomes of these two studies, particularly referring to the arguments on the psycho-motor development of Albert B. The results of assessment of the Little Albert’s developmental age, conducted by students as a class exercise on a course of developmental psychology, are also discussed. They might be helpful in the evaluation of different conclusions about Little Albert’s history.

The paper presents Test Refleksji nad Myśleniem (TRM, Reflection on Thinking Test), designed to investigate the development of reflection on thinking in children above 4 years of age. TRM is composed of nine tasks in the form of illustrated stories. The tasks assess child’s understanding of the 1^st order beliefs (Unexpected Transfer Test and Deceptive Box Test), understanding of deception, ambiguity and interpretation, understanding of surprise and the 2^nd order beliefs. In order to evaluate basic psychometric properties of TRM, data gathered from 259 Polish monolingual children aged 4 to 6 were analyzed. The test correctly differentiates the scores of 4-, 5- and 6-year-olds and displays appropriate measurement invariance. The TRM results are positively correlated with results of tests measuring general cognitive and linguistic abilities in children. Additionally, in accordance with our predictions, the typically developing children obtained significantly higher results than children with specific language impairment. The results confirm that TRM is a reliable and valid instrument that can be used in basic research.

The article focuses on the specificity of psychosocial functioning of the music and art schools students. The research presented revealed the differences between the musical and artistic talented adolescents in terms of the temperament traits and social competences. Comparative group consisted of students of general schools. 354 students took part in the study, of which 45% were music schools students, 28% were art schools students, and 27% were the students of general schools. The assumption was made that the profile of education represented by particular groups of art and music schools students is tantamount to having an elevated level of musical or artistic skills. The surveyed students of general schools declared lack of both interest in art and artistic abilities. The results of the research revealed that the students of art and music schools exhibit significantly higher level of endurance (conceived as an attribute of temperament, measured by the Temperament Questionnaire – Formal Characteristics of Behavior by Bogdan Zawadzki and Jan Strelau) than the students of general schools. On the other hand, in terms of social competences (measured by Anna Matczak’s Social Competence Questionnaire) students of art schools exhibit a significantly lower level of ability in the field of social exposure than the students of music schools and general schools.

The article discusses the health issues of musically gifted young people, who, due to the nature of music education, are exposed to experiencing stage fright, understood as a specific type of stress that does not necessarily has negative impact on health. The purpose of the research was to answer the questions concerning the level of health of secondary school music students and its determinants. The Functional Health Model developed by Helena Wrona-Polańska (2003) was adopted as a theoretical basis, according to which health is a function of creative coping with stress.

Health and stage fright were defined operationally. In the research the standardized interview and questionnaire techniques developed by the author were used. The research group comprised 132 students of secondary music schools.

The results have shown that a quarter of students rate their health as bad, whereas more than half experience high level of stage fright and its symptoms, and cope with stage fright by focusing on emotions. Stage fright and emotional style have turned out to be negative predictors of health. The results point to the need of implementing interventions aimed at promoting the health of young people engaged in music education.

Researchers into the impact of web-mediated communication on the quality of close friendship present two views: some provide results indicating positive effect (immediate beginning of a friendship, deepening relationships), while the others point to the risk of trivializing the human relationship. The correlation was investigated between the frequency of online contacts and the perceived quality of friendship in three age groups: late adolescents, emerging adults and young adults (643 subjects in total), as well as the moderating influence of the attitude towards the Internet (open / overwhelmed attitude). The research was carried out with the use of questionnaires Quality of Friendship (KJP)by Magdalena Żurko and Internet Interpersonal Relations (KIRI) by Dorota Chmielewska-Łuczak. A positive relationship occurred in the group of adolescents and the group of emerging adults. The attitude towards the Internet tuned out not to play a moderating role in the tested relationships in any of the age groups.

The present article describes the process of revision of the Polish adaptation of the popular identity measure – The Dimensions of Identity Development Scale. The article presents theoretical assumptions of the scale, reasons for undertaking the process of revision of the Polish adaptation of the DIDS, and the results of three studies in which the revised questionnaire was used. The obtained results suggest that in its current version the Polish adaptation of the DIDS is a reliable and factorially valid measure. The associations of the five identity processes measured by the DIDS (exploration in breadth, commitment making, exploration in depth, identification with commitment, ruminative exploration) with rumination, reflection, worry, shame, guilt, indecisiveness, and educational identity dimensions support the validity of the Polish adaptation of the measure.

The subject of this paper is the concept of development in life span psychology. The claim was put forward that the picture of human development presented by contemporary developmental psychology is unsatisfactory, and that the reason for this is the incompatibility of the methodological paradigm of natural sciences adopted by psychology with the specificity of the object of study of developmental psychology. An analysis of the nature of development within Bernard Kaplan’s genetic-dramatism perspective and John R. Searle’s theory of mind and social reality was presented. Also, its methodological implications were delineated, drawing attention to the attempt of both perspectives to coordinate the logic of cause and effect with the one of intention, purposes and aims in studying human development

Cheating in school, which involves presentation of someone else’s work as one’s own in order to obtain a reward and avoid punishment by meeting the teacher’s expectations, seems to take place in heteronomous education, which is subordinated to a given curriculum. There is no reason for cheating in autonomous education, where the authorship of students and teachers in school is respected. Nevertheless, schools with their students and teachers do not enjoy a full autonomy and they never will. Autonomous education consists in implementing a curriculum derived from the students and teachers’ internal interpretation of educational good and giving every student an opportunity to enjoy it. The educational good has the nature of an ideal, which is not directly accessible, but which can be captured by the human mind only through inner interpretation, although never fully and never clearly enough. It is essential to introduce education in relation to the child’s development. Following Szuman (1959), Przetacznikowa (1963) and Wygotski (1971) – Niemczyński (2016a, 2017) presented a theory of the convergence of child’s development with education. It argues that the autonomous development of children and adolescents draws support from education as long as education protects it from heteronomous pressure. The more effective this protection is, the less probability there is of cheating in school and the more importance is awarded to the respect for the authorship of intellectual products at school. This could take place in a school managed in a way that respects the autonomy of education.

The lack of terminological precision in relation to a category that is widely used in social sciences, i.e. experience, provided inspiration for reviewing the scientific approach to the concept. The role of experience in the psychological development of an individual was evidenced using Aristotle’s perspective, Locke’s theory of empiricism and the conceptions of Tomaszewski, Bruner, Piaget and Tyszkowa. Different types of experience present in human life were presented. The author also proposed an original conceptualisation of experiencing and experience in relation to parenthood, pointing to factors which determine the way of experiencing motherhood and fatherhood and which are essential in the process of operationalisation of the analysed categories. The 63 identified criteria that differentiate the experiences of adult mothers and fathers evidence the research potential that arises from parenthood.

This article is an invitation to discuss the role and tasks of a contemporary school psychologist. The main purpose of the presented theory is to outline a school psychologist’s role as a co-creator of the environment and educational process within the school setting. The introduced M-I-P-P model consists of the following psychological activities: Monitoring-Intervention-Prevention-Promotion. The need to constantly widen the possibilities of psychological action as well as to develop the ability to create autonomous plans of implementing those actions, are part of the described model. The understanding and accurate implementation of the presented model are key to the school psychologist’s professional future, just as a clearly outlined and articulate professional identity is the necessary basis and regulator of one’s functioning in the professional environment.

The aim of the study was to describe the syntactic abilities of elderly people taking into account possible differences between young-olds (67–75; M = 72.55, SD = 1.99) and old-olds (76–90; M = 79.88, SD = 2.92) in this area. Spontaneously produced narrations were assessed taking into account the grammatical correctness, complexity and coherence. Working memory and cognitive flexibility (visual shifting and verbal fluency) were also measured. The analysis showed that the young-olds differ from the old-olds only in the coherence of their narrations. The relation between using anaphors and working memory capacity was also proved

The purpose of this study was to define mothers’ level of acceptance of beliefs and behaviours towards a child which are linked to three parental myths chosen by the authors: the myth of the supreme value of the child, of the need to ensure the child’s happiness, and of making friends with the child. Furthermore, the authors wanted to discover if parental myth acceptance is linked to rating the reasons behind the parents’ behaviour in accordance with these myths. In the study, 113 mothers (aged from 22 to 50) with at least one child of age between 1 and 7 participated. An Obsessive Mother to Child Love Questionnaire (OMCLQ) and a Modern Parent Stereotype Questionnaire (MPSQ) were used. The results of the study show that the parental myths selected by the authors are moderately accepted by the surveyed mothers, both when it comes to their beliefs and to behaviours towards the child.

Referring to psychological concepts of child development inspired by the achievements of Lev S. Vygotsky (1971, 2002, 2006) and John Bowlby (2007), the authors formed a procedural model of sensitive teaching. The sensitive teaching model was referenced to experiences with mobile devices reported by families with young children. The presented study explores the meanings assigned by the caregivers to mobile devices in the parent–child–mobile device interaction. The qualitative content analysis of 97 self-narration resulted in seven categories of meaning: (1) educator, (2) amusement, (3) risk, (4) distractor and inhibitor, (5) replacement, (6) regulator of emotions, (7) biological control.

The author presents her reflection on the issue of personal growth in times of globalization from the perspective of her own research results. An overview of the contemporary dynamics of globalization is given, with a particular focus on its driving mechanism and two most prominent aspects – the informational and the cultural ones. The effects of technological development are discussed from the standpoint offered by Herbert Marshall McLuhan’s taxonomy, particularly the effects of elimination and obsolescence.
The framework for the description is taken from the concept of information metabolism and its disorders leading to difficulties in the development of personal knowledge – resulting from both teaching and learning – conceptualized as one of the elements of personality responsible for the dynamics of development. Those disorders are viewed in the author’s own theoretical term of information stress and are linked – empirically as well – to individual correlates such as dysfunctional control.
While the author recognizes the threats to development and growth stemming from globalization, she vehemently opposes technological determinism as contradictory to the subjectivity of human being characteristic to psychological approaches. The efforts to harmonize the technological and cultural avenues of development are therefore seen as an opportunity for a new quality of personal growth, especially when attached to self-reflection.

The article describes selected theoretical perspectives on student school engagement. School engagement is a meta-construct including a wide spectrum of mental attitudes such as: the sense of belonging to a school, acceptance of the goals of schooling, psychological investment in an effort directed toward learning, understanding, or mastering the knowledge, skills, or crafts that academic work is intended to promote, as well as emotional involvement with school, including the student’s motivation to learn. Specific dimensions of student engagement were described as cognitive, affective and behavioral. School disengagement is a predictor of risk behavior, delinquency, proactive aggression, substance abuse, school drop-out syndrome and school burnout.

The article presents the results of research related to feedback from parents with various parenting styles, divided according to Diana Baumrind’s conception into authoritative, authoritarian or permissive. The aim of the study was to determine what kind of positive and negative feedback is characteristic of each style. The study was conducted among adolescents, aged 16–19, N = 226. Both the parenting styles and feedback were studied from the adolescent’s perspective. The following methods were applied: Parental Authority Questionnaire (Buri, 1991) and our own method: Questionnaire of Feedback in Parent-Child Relations. The results show that the most significant correlations occurred between feedback and the authoritative style. The stronger the authoritative style of the parent was (both for mothers and fathers), the more often the adolescent experienced positive feedback (general, specific and trait-related) and constructive criticism from the parent, and the less often there was a lack of reaction from the parent. The authoritarian parenting style was connected with less effective communication, in which negative feedback predominated. There was no clear pattern between feedback and the permissive style.

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between the body image in first-time pregnant women and the perceived relationship with the parent, the partner and the child. David Krueger’s theory on the development of body self and Murray Bowen’s theory on family systems were the theoretical background of the research problem. The participants were 144 women in the third trimester of first pregnancy. The subjects were administered a documentation sheet, the Body Esteem Scale, Dresden Body Image Inventory, Questionnaire of Relationship, and a ‘Naked Person’ Drawing Test. The application of the statistical method of data clustering enabled to distinguish three groups of pregnant women, who differed in terms of their body image. These groups obtained various results concerning the differentiation of the self and the perceived relationship with the parents, the partner and the unborn child

The present article deals with the problem of accumulation of psychosocial resources which adults who currently undergo the depression episodes have at their disposal. Such resources as trust, autonomy, initiative, sense of industry, sense of identity, intimacy, generativity and ontic integrity are all considered as manifestations of personal integrity. The theoretical purpose of this article is to identify the resources which become weakened during an ongoing depression episode. Some hypotheses referring to intergroup differences have been formulated as far as the intensification of psychosocial resources is concerned. The research included 60 people, aged between 25 and 66, and within this group 30 subjects were undergoing the depression episode (F32.1, F32.2, F33.1, F33.2). In the research, the Questionnaire of Personal Integration by Zagórska, Migut and Jelińska (2014) was used. The Questionnaire in question is an operationalization of the authorial conception of personal integration falling within the ambit of post-Eriksonian approach. Ontic integrity (Cronbach’s α < .7) was excluded from the analysis. The presence of a depressive episode or the lack of it explained 50 percent of the dispersion of the analyzed structure of traits. The variables with the most considerable input to the differentiation of the result profiles in two groups were trust, as the axial role in the model, and generativity. The variables defining the similarities of the groups in question were the sense of identity and intimacy. The variables such as autonomy, initiative and sense of industry had little impact on differences between the groups. Defining the fields of individual restrictions and strengths might be helpful in the prophylaxis and therapy of depression.

The article focuses on the problem of loneliness among school children. In our approach this phenomenon is multi-faceted. The concept involves three aspects. The first one is the sense of loneliness as social non-acceptance, neglect and social exclusion. The second is emotional loneliness, which, in turn, means a negative assessment of oneself as a partner in relationships with people of special emotional significance. It is also associated with low mood and other not very intense negative emotions. Finally, the third one is existential loneliness, which involves a feeling of disorientation, uncertainty and helplessness in the face of a perceived chronically insufficient integration with the world. The tripartite concept of loneliness was tested during the construction of a Scale of Loneliness for school children (SBS-C) based on a previously developed Scale of Loneliness (SBS) for young people (Dołęga 2013b; students aged 12–19 years). The adaptation of SBS to children was carried out in several stages involving teachers and a group of approx. 120 students of elementary school. Factor analyzes essentially confirmed the correctness of the theoretical model of the three factors of loneliness in children aged 8–13 years. The psychometric properties of SBS-C were also confirmed. The coefficients of internal consistency proved to be satisfactory: Cronbach’s alpha = .92 for the whole scale (SBS-C_TOTAL) and from .84 to .87 for the three subscales: social (SBS_SP), emotional (SBS_SE) and existential loneliness (SBS_SEG). The article discusses some of the issues concerning the construct validity, the payload, and the diagnostic criterion. A further research direction is set out.

Elderly people are not a homogeneous group in terms of their adaptation to aging degree. Most often, the optimal adaptation is when an elder person has a high life satisfaction, confidence in oneself and others, as well as effectively copes with tasks attributable to the period of late adulthood. There are many theories explaining the process of adaptation to old age. One of them is the concept of gerotranscendence by Lars Tornstam developed mainly in the Nordic countries. This proposal is the cognitively valuable and inspiring concept of the positive aging. It allows to esentialise the aging process and look at an elderly person in a new way. The article presents the theoretical background of the gerotranscendence theory, its main objectives and main research directions.

The biological changes in adolescence among girls are the basis for the emergence of depressive symptoms, however these symptoms can also be a consequence of a negative body self formation. The aim of the study was to analyze the relationship between experiencing their own body self (manifested in the experience of intimate relations with the men, acceptance of one’s body, attitude towards eating and body weight, disclosure of femininity), attachment styles, age ofonset of menarche, BMI, occurrence of mental illness in family and severity of depressive symptoms among women aged 18-25 years, and to determine the impact of these variables on the severity of depressive symptoms. The results show a weak relationship between age ofonset of menarche and the level of acceptance of one’s body and disclosure of femininity. Moreover, a moderate relationship exists between age ofonset of menarche and the severity of depressive symptoms, and between the strength of body self and the severity of depressive symptoms and attachment styles. Predictors of depressive symptoms are: low acceptance of one’s body, anxiety - ambivalent attachment style and the occurrence of mental illness in family.

Previous research on shaping the value structure in childhood was based on the classical model by Schwartz (1992) and was conducted by means of the ipsative picture method developed by Döring et al. (2010). The research presented in this article was built on the developmental interpretation of Schwartz’s theory, but used a new method: Animated Best-Worst Survey for Children (ABWS-C) developed by Collins and Lee and used by Collins (2013). This measurement instrument (1) contains indicators of values in the form of several-second animations that are chosen by children as most and least preferable; (2) is based on the refined value model proposed by Schwartz et al. (2012) and (3) overcomes the problems with ipsativity (which emerged in Döring et al.’s method, 2010) by applying the best-worst scaling approach. This article presents the results of a research study on value structure in a group of children aged from 7 to 11, obtained by using the Polish adaptation of the ABWS-C. It turned out that the values from both the classical and the refined catalog form a circular structure with four higher order values and that the order of all values is as predicted by the models (with some exceptions). Finally, the consequences of the research on value structure and the significance of the obtained results are discussed.

Building a long lasting intimate relationship is one of the basic and fundamental tassks of early adulthood (Erikson 1997, 2004; Havighurst 1981; Levinson, Darrow, Klein, 1978). Nowadays an increasing number of people are postponing their entry into relationships or are choosing to live their lives as singles. This poses the question of why young people are not forming lasting romantic relationships and the research presented here is part of a broader research which is trying to uncover the reasons why people are choosing not to enter into lasting intimate relationships and choose to remain single.

The goal of the research presented here was to identify the relationship between the degree of closeness perceived in the relationships with their parents during childhood and adolescence and the current commitment to others and experiences of intimacy experienced by young adults. We were interested in whether people living in relationships and those living alone would differ in terms of the factors identified and what precisely was the relationship between them. In addition we attempted to identify if the feelings of closeness felt towards parents and the experience of commitment and intimacy with those close to them translated into an assessment of its quality and whether there were differences depending on gender.

431 individuals participated in the research aged between 23 and 37 (M= 29,65  ; SD= 4,29 ). 217 women were studied (M=29,62; SD=4,35) and  214 men (M= 29,67 ; SD= 4,24).  Those in relationships constituted 46% , and those living alone numbered 54 % of the group studied. The analysis indicated a relationship between the degree of closeness with parents and the feeling of intimacy with one’s partner which in turn had an impact on the perceived quality of the relationship. A relation was also observed between closeness to parents, intimacy and commitment to those closest to the subjects.

The author presents selected dominant contemporary approaches to the interpretation of subjectivity. Subjectivity is essential to understanding individual development. Unfortunately, one has to do with a huge amount of different interpretations. The article presents ways of interpreting subjectivity from the agentive internalistic and agentive externalistic positions, as well as proposes considering them from a personalistic perspective. The personalistic perspective of interpreting subjectivity is but one among other perspectives.

Gravity is a natural force found in different dimensions. Mental gravity includes inertia, addiction, mindlessness and other similar processes or states. Anti-gravity, on the other hand, includes activity, freedom, openness, mindfulness, etc. Religiosity is a personal and positive relation of human to God. Processes of religiosity – according to its structural definition – include the following clusters of processes (parameters): (1) religious awareness, (2) religious feelings, (3) religious decisions (preferences), (4) a bond with a community of believers, (5) religious practices, (6) religious morality, (7) religious experiences, and (8) forms of confessing the faith (especially prayerful and sacrificial acts and the sense of mystery). The article is meant as an analysis of anti-gravitational processes of religiosity in the abovementioned domains. It presents a specific language about and a fragment of the language of religiosity.

This article aims to present a review of the essence of and educational opportunities offered by the Konstanz Method of Dilemma-Discussion (KMDD®) by Prof. Georg Lind from the University of Konstanz. The article presents the theoretical background and methodological aspects of KMDD®, as well as its importance in processes of supporting the socio-moral and democratic development. Ways of evaluating the results of applying the method are also discussed, as well as international studies supporting its effectiveness in educational practice. KMDD® is well recognized and successfully used in more than forty countries around the world, where it supports the moral development of young people and adults by building their moral and democratic competence.

The way a given theoretical concept is interpreted depends on several temporal perspectives. First of all, not only is it the age of the interpreter and the historical time when the interpretation takes place, but also the chronology of successive versions of the author’s ideas or their interpretations by others. Without taking those into account, the misinterpretation which could have been avoided may be mistaken with another which is impossible to avoid. Thus, a correct interpretation might be considered wrong. Allowing for time variables must result in the conclusion that a close-to-correct interpretation of a theoretical concept is available only to a mature person who has both the physical and psychological access to the content of the theory, and who has become independent from the historical actuality to a large extent.
The root of this reflection is in the book Versus. About the structural duality of development phases in the ecology of life cycle in Erik H. Erikson’s psychodynamic model published by Lech Witkowski in 2015. The concept presented in the work seems a perfect example of such a dependency. Only at the last phase of his lifecycle did the author himself fully understand and synthetically describe the logic of the stage development of the ego and self identity, as well as the central content and dynamics of inner- and interstage processes.

Research suggests that social cognitive abilities, particularly social perspective-taking and theory of mind (ToM), play a role in the development of persuasion in early and middle childhood. In the presented study, the inner state talk and perspective-taking in a natural persuasive play context were studied to explore the relational specificity of persuading an adult or a peer. Ninety 5 to 7-year-olds participated in a novel persuasion role-play task in which children were invited to convince an interactive puppet-partner. The results showed that while persuading an adult, children more often included terms used to denote thoughts, memories, or knowledge, that is cognitive inner state talk, as compared to persuading a peer playmate, when they more often referred to emotional and motivational states. Talking about the personal perspective of the persuaded person or the shared perspective of both play-characters was connected with the use of direct-bilateral persuasive strategies, like compromise or bargaining.

The aim of this study is to identify the relationship between the tendency to worry and the perception of parental attitudes in early adolescence.
A group of 103 children, aged from 13 to 15, was examined. The participants completed two tests: Anne Roe’s Parent-Child Relations Questionnaire and Bruce Chorpita’s Penn State Worry Questionnaire for Children.
Adolescents, girls more often than boys, worry at a moderate level. The results confirm that the intensity level of worry is associated with the perception of some parental attitudes: the more young people perceive their parents as demanding and rejecting, the more they worry. The tendency to worry is mostly associated with the rejecting mother’s attitude.