It is argued that certain words for jail in Diné bizaad (Navajo)„ e.g. ’awáalya and wáalya, come from Spanish. Although it has been long suspected that this word is a loanword, all the suggestions so far presented in the literature remain unconvincing on phonological grounds.

This paper considers the Greek language as a member of the Standard Average European (SAE) linguistic area as defined by Haspelmath (1998, 2001). After a brief presentation of the model, there follows a detailed analysis from this perspective of four selected features in Greek: relative clauses with relative pronouns, the “have”-perfect with a passive par- ticiple, participial passives, and negation. The approach applied focuses on specifics that concern standard and non-standard varieties, not only in the language system itself but also in its diachronic development. The results are then measured using Seiler’s (2019) classification of SAE features, with an eye to enriching the classification both empirically and theoretically.

* The paper was written with the support of the project “European Changes and Stability: Ancient Civilizations and Languages in Later European Transformations” (MUNI/A/1208/2022), funded by Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic. We thank the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and constructive remarks that helped to improve this paper.

The paper discusses the etymology of Slavonic loanwords found in a previously unpublished South-Western Karaim translation of the Book of Daniel copied into manuscript no. ADub.III.84. South-Western Karaims were surrounded by speakers of Polish, Ukrainian and Russian, with the linguistic contact instigating changes in Karaim over a period of several centuries. The present article focuses only on the Slavonic impact upon Karaim vocabulary and attempts to determine whether the borrowed words can be traced back to Polish, Ukrainian or Russian etymons. The loanwords are additionally compared with their counterparts in ancient Polish Bible translations.

A discussion of the problem of “Altaic” influence on Proto-Slavic is the main focus of this paper. In its first part, chronological and terminological questions are presented; the second part is devoted to etymologies (*baranъ ‘ram’, *koza ‘goat’, *klobukъ ‘fur cap, hat’, *kъlbasa ‘sausage’, sablja ‘sabre’).

The study uses linguistic corpus tools in order to establish in what contexts the issue of migration in Europe was addressed in the Serbian press in the period 2007–2017. About 20,000 randomly chosen texts from the dailies Politika and Danas were subjected to topic modelling, collocational profiling, and also a contextual examination in the case of the paper editions. The interpretation of the data considered the effect of the medium’s ideological slant on the discourse structures used. It emerged that the selection of topics and the arrangement of texts in the liberal daily Danas corresponded to its pro-European profile. Politika, in turn, seemed to be gradually shifting towards the portrayal of Europe as being mired in crisis. In addition, the procedure used in the study enabled reflection on the usefulness of the results of topic modelling for media discourse analysis.

* The paper has been rendered into English by a professional translator (Mateusz Urban) under a POB Heritage grant from the Jagiellonian University to Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis.

This article analyzes the process of Nasal Assimilation in English.1 The approach to Nasal Assimilation in a standard rule-based framework can be conducted in two ways: by assuming an underlying alveolar nasal or by employing underspecification. The article contributes to the ongoing debate regarding underspecification in phonology and focuses on employing underspecified representations in Optimality Theory. First, it is argued that in such words as, for instance, somber, Nasal Assimilation is best analyzed in terms of positional faithfulness in the form of prevocalic faithfulness. Second, as the analyses show, positional faithfulness does not provide a workable scenario for all the data, and it is necessary to use underspecification to satisfactorily analyze English words which lack the context for positional faithfulness, for example, swamp. Nevertheless, subsequent evaluations demonstrate that in certain phrases, for instance, sing boys, employing underspecification is not sufficient either, and level distinction is necessary. Therefore, the article also offers an argument in favour of levels in Optimality Theory.

* This paper develops the analysis originally conducted in Rubach (2019) by extending the empirical coverage.

The Icelandic chieftain Óláfr Hǫskuldsson of Laxdæla saga is the son of an enslaved Irish princess, Melkorka, yet is still judged a candidate to succeed her father as an Irish king. His choice to return to Iceland is validated by his subsequent success as a stockman and community leader. Yet he fails to recognize that the source of his prosperity and material plenty lies in his maternal inheritance, in which Melkorka (‘Smooth-Oat’) may be identified as a Celtic sovereignty figure, the source of his irrecusable election to a rich somatic life and chieftaincy, complemented by the attention of his paternal family’s tutelary spirit or fylgja. By slaughtering his totemic ox, Harri, he calls down the vengeance of the Icelandic tutelary figure representing his father’s family’s fortunes which had concurrently assured his success. Retribution follows later in the saga with the death of his favourite son, Kjartan. From the perspective of the thirteenth century, when Iceland yielded to Norwegian hegemony, the arc of Óláfr’s career is paralleled on a greater scale by Iceland’s early medieval history.

The aim of the current article is to present the history of the Spanish lexeme perro ‘dog’ in Spanish lexicography. We will begin with an overview of the discussion of the etymology of the word itself and information about its earliest attestations. Subsequently, we will trace both the presence and the content of the dictionary entries for this lexeme from the beginnings of Spanish lexicography. The final part of the article considers contemporary lexicography, and thus we will address the rich phraseology associated with the lexeme perro, which may serve as a basis for further language and culture-related research. The article contributes to the field of cultural linguistics, but due to the examined corpus, it also includes observations of a lexicographic nature.

The paper is an article of reflection which aims to critically analyze the concept of success as viewed from an individual’s perspective as well as through the lenses of others. Historically and socially dependent norms and values regulating psychological and sociological approaches to success and failure are also considered and their personal and social consequences examined. Against this background the postwar concepts of a successful language learner and a successful language teacher are examined from both diachronic and synchronic perspectives. A model with six stages is proposed, the function of which is to estimate their approximate duration as well as to identify criteria adopted in order to distinguish between success and failure in particular periods. Terminology, drawn from the philosophy of law, relating to norms and expectations is presented to examine methodological issues in evaluation and assessment. Implications for language teacher education are also considered.

In this short text, I examine the usage of the Lycian word tabahaza, highlight its possible Anatolian cognates, such as the Hittite nēpiš- ‘heaven’ and the Cuneiform Luwian tappaš- ‘id.’, analyze and address the problems arising from this connection, while also reconstructing the intermediate phases between Proto-Indo-European, as well as other proto- and attested languages, in relation to the development of the form in question.

Erazm Rykaczewski’s Dokładny słownik polsko-angielski… (1851) was the first Polish- English dictionary. As well as English equivalents for Polish headwords, it offered a rich selection of Polish illustrative examples paired with their English counterparts to provide the user with information on the way the headwords are used in context. While making a bilingual dictionary requires fluency in both languages, Rykaczewski’s knowledge of English was somewhat less than perfect. In the light of the above, how he compiled the volume’s English side remains largely unresolved. This paper empirically tests the hypothesis that he drew on the works of other lexicographers. The research methodology was twofold. Firstly, Fleming and Tibbins’s Royal dictionary (1844-1845) was examined to ascertain whether it formed a part of Rykaczewski’s background material and, if so, to what extent. Secondly, English examples of usage unrecorded in the Royal dictionary were verified against Google Books, a gigantic corpus of texts, to identify potential sources.

The paper discusses a group of eleven words with similar phonetic shapes and somewhat similar semantics: jagu-, jak- ‘to come near’; jan- ‘to turn back’; jaguk, jakȳn ‘close, near’; jāk, jān ‘side’; jāna- ‘to sharpen’; jaŋak ‘cheek’; jaŋy ‘new’; and jaka ‘edge’. All have been suspected to belong to the same family, at the heart of which, most probably, would be the verbal root *jā-. Some of the problems associated with this idea were known previously, whereas some are newly identified here. The paper considers various constraints and proposes a scheme centred around *jā ∼ *ja- ‘to be near, …’, which may or may not be connected to MaTung. daga ‘id.’ and Mo. daga- ‘to follow’.

Online peer support groups encourage individuals to tell their stories and to find validation and emotional comfort when reading about the stories of others. Coincidently, lived experiences are the kind of knowledge applied to solicit and to deliver peer advice. This study examines the relationship between storytelling and advice in an English speaking online forum that provides support for those with an eating disorder (ED). The results revealed a range of different types of narratives within the data, from more elaborate testimonials of the ED and the process of recovery to brief personal passages responding to the first poster. The Labovian narrative structure appeared in a number of the first stories, whereas two main configurations, contingent upon the kind of response offered, emerged in second stories: parallel assessments (or snapshots) and success stories. Parallel assessments constituted self-centred stories and did not include any advice provision. Success stories, instead, became an essential component of the advice-giving act since they were remedial. The solution proposed by responders to the problem posed by the first poster was organized either to offer tips (that is, a series of practical recommendations to address a specific ED or recovery issue) or to deliver thoughtful advice through a resolutive story that introduced the state of recovery as a real possibility. Both parallel assessments and resolutive stories included contrasting resonances in relation to the first story. Resolutive stories encompassed resonating elements whose meanings were transformed and (re)signified from the positioning of a subject moving towards recovery. However, snapshots echoed specific key expressions from the initiating post. The goal was to display alignment with the first teller by describing a similar I-perspective experience. Taken together, the individual small stories contributed to the co-construction of a multiple-lived story with regard to the ED in the online community.

This paper is a corpus-based study focusing on implicit evaluation expressed in newspaper discourse, namely, the semantic mapping of emotion and opinion. The corpus, compiled of online “front page” newspaper articles from both selected tabloids (The Sun, The Express, The Mirror) and broadsheets (The Telegraph, The Guardian, The Independent) was used to answer three research questions: 1) Is evaluation markedly expressed in newspaper discourse? 2) What linguistic means are typical for construing evaluation in newspaper discourse? 3) Is there a difference between the tabloids and the broadsheets regarding the way in which/how evaluation is conveyed/employed? To answer these questions, a pilot keyword study on only six articles was carried out (one article from each of the aforementioned newspapers). The findings confirmed the importance of adjectives in expressing evaluation. Following this, a large study was conducted to detect local grammar adjectival lexicogrammatical patterns, introduced by Hunston (2000) and further amended by Bednarek (2007, 2009). These patterns, which are known for carrying the evaluative load, were analyzed in terms of frequency and function. It was observed that there is a difference in expressing evaluation between the tabloids and the broadsheets. However, more significant differences were found between the broadsheet newspapers themselves.

The study focuses on the strategies of engagement employed by medical doctors in YouTube videos. The goal of the analysis is to investigate multimodal strategies used in selected videos on the most popular medical YouTube channels in Poland. The study is conducted against a theoretical background that considers previous research on engagement strategies in science and popularization discourse (Hyland 2010; Luzón 2015, 2019; Sokół 2018). Engagement strategies involving reader pronouns, directives, questions, shared knowledge as well as humour, expression of opinions and emotions are investigated, as well as headings, visuals and music. The analysis reveals that medical doctors employ a vast array of diverse engagement strategies which do not form a unified set of practices across the channels. The differences concern the frequency and type of strategies, such as the use of headings, visuals, special effects and music. The study also reveals considerable differences between the videos as to the degree to which the authors exploit the affordances of the audio-visual medium. The formats of the videos comprise both the more traditional, such as slides with a voice-over, as well as more novel approaches, such as presentation films. The strategies employed show that the authors attempt to form a distinctive and recognizable style of interaction with the audience.

* This research was funded by the programme Excellence Initiative – Research University at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków (Heritage Priority Research Area).

Expressions of epistemic stance in academic discourse reflect not only the authors’ commitment to the truth of what is being said, but also their awareness of other members of the discourse community, the current thinking within the discipline, and the established patterns of interaction. Stance-taking is strongly embedded in culture and language, as demonstrated in numerous studies that focus on L2 academic English (e.g. Hinkel 2002; Dontcheva-Navratilova 2018; Wu and Paltridge 2021) and, less often, academic communication in various linguistic contexts (e.g. Perez-Llantada 2010). This paper purues this latter line of inquiry and proposes a contrastive analysis of epistemic markers in conclusions to English- and Polish-language linguistics articles in an attempt to identify their epistemic profiles. Epistemic profile refers here to a combination of two features: the epistemic modal value (Halliday 1985/1994) which is marked more frequently than others across a text or text fragment, and the concurrence of modality markers with specific rhetorical moves (Swales 1990; Yang and Allison 2003). Thus, it provides information about the value of modalization and the type of content that tends to be modalized. The analysis was based on a two-part corpus of conclusions to 400 linguistics articles, with 200 English-language articles drawn from international databases and 200 Polish-language articles published in recognized national journals. In the first stage, the frequencies of epistemic markers in the two sub-corpora were calculated (Scott 2008) and a statistical analysis was applied to determine whether the differences were significant. In the second stage, 50 concluding sections from each sub-corpus were manually annotated for rhetorical moves to determine whether epistemic markers tended to occur within specific moves. The findings show statistically significant differences in the frequencies of high- and low-value epistemic markers in the sub-corpora and a tendency for epistemic markers to occur within moves that offer interpretive content.

The article focuses on the deployment of hypothetical talk in the CANBEC and CCI corpora of business meetings and examines its use as a discursive tool for communicating stance in encounters where participants represent (potentially) incompatible positions. Through the use of hypothetical talk, interactants signal the potential for agreement and resolution by testing the other participants’ position and their preparedness to shift their view. It is argued that although talk introduced to the meeting may be hypothetical, the stance communicated is real. The analysis provides insights into actions applied to resolve impasse or conflict situations, particularly through the rhetorical move of formulating. Formulating aims to resolve or summarize talk at a particular instance in time. The act of formulating requires an evaluative step on the part of the participants in order to consider their contributions or their opposition to the formulation. It is, therefore, of interest to examine how talk that is known to be hypothetical – hence essentially unreal, speculative, potentially untrue or even counterfactual – can be allowed to feature in meetings discourse and to influence a meeting’s outcome. Two theoretical models were applied to understand this – Du Bois’s (2007) “stance triangle” and Hunston’s (1989, 1994, 2011) three functions of evaluation. These offered a new perspective on the role of hypothetical talk in business meetings, where, as the results demonstrate, hypothetical talk is used to signal stance, test that of the other participants, and advance the speakers’ goals. By integrating the two models and applying them in order to understand how hypothetical talk is formulated in business meetings, it was possible to conceptualize the process through which meeting participants evaluate and act upon talk, by making “real life decisions” upon information which has initially been introduced to the meeting as hypothetical.

The study aims to emphasize how lexical particles and grammatical constructions express indirect evidentiality and the speaker’s stance in Romanian. As with the other Romance languages, Romanian contains the grammatical means to express the speaker’s knowledge source, such as the Conditional Mood, a prototypical quotative/reportative evidential marking, or the Subjunctive and the Future, which, together with the Presumptive, a modal form specific to this linguistic system alone, function as markers of indirect evidentiality of the inferential type. Additionally, each of these forms can be augmented by a rich lexicalized system of adverbs and particles. For example, pesemne [‘probably’, literally on + signs], poate [‘may be’; a regressive form from the third person singular of the verb a se putea < Late Latin *potere (Classical Latin posse)], probabil [‘probably’, < a borrowing from the Fr. probable and the Lat. probabilis] are lexical particles of inferential evidentiality, and cică [‘supposedly’; a lexicalized form from the expression [se zi]ce că – literally it said that], pasămite [‘apparently’ whose etymology is controversial] and chipurile [‘supposedly’; a borrowing from Hungarian, literally ‘faces’] are means of quotative/reportative evidentiality. This lexical and grammatical system marking indirect evidentiality will be analyzed with respect to their grammaticalization processes, but also addressing the discursive behaviour.

The discursive practices of individual academic disciplines differ in many ways, which is why numerous studies of academic discourse adopt cross-disciplinary perspectives to explore the character and extent of those differences. Less attention has, however, been given to interdisciplinary discourses which incorporate the findings and/or research methods from a number of disciplines. This paper focuses on the discourse of one of the new critical interdisciplinarities: posthumanism. More specifically, it examines how posthumanist discourse integrates knowledge produced by the soft and hard sciences (as well as other sources) to build its perspective on animals and their relations with humans. Using Martin and White’s (2005) appraisal framework to study knowledge claims collected from selected scholarly monographs adopting a posthumanist perspective, this study demonstrates that posthumanist claims referring to biological knowledge and experiential evidence tend to contain neutral, positive and endorsing formulations, while the knowledge from the soft sciences is reported in more critical ways, which is consistent with the aims of critical interdisciplinarities, i.e. questioning and transforming the dominant knowledge structure within different disciplines. Additionally, this paper provides evidence of the importance of popular science within interdisciplinary research in the humanities. It also sheds some light on the rhetorical practices within the scholarly monograph as a genre, particularly concerning the relative flexibility of its discursive conventions in comparison with those expected from a research article.

This paper examines the relation between hypotheticals and epistemic stance in jury trials, and it reveals how hypothetically framed questions (HQs) are used in cross- examination to construct “the admissible truth” (Gutheil et al. 2003) which is then turned into evidence. It looks at a selection of interactional exchanges identified in the transcripts and video recordings which document two days of expert witness cross- examination in two high-profile criminal cases. In the study, two approaches to data analysis were combined: a bottom-up approach focusing on markers of HQs offering “points of entry” into discourse through a corpus-assisted analysis and a top-down approach looking at cross-examination as a complex communicative event, providing a more holistic view of the interactional context in which HQs are used. The paper explains the role which such questions play in the positioning of opposing knowledge claims, as well as discusses the effect they create in hostile interaction with expert witnesses. As is revealed, HQs are used to elicit the witness’s assessments of alternative scenarios of past events and causal links involving the facts of the case; to elicit the witness’s assessments of general hypothetical scenarios not involving the facts of the case, or to undermine the validity of the witness’s method of analysis. In sum, the paper explains how the use of HQs aids cross-examining attorneys in deconstructing unfavourable testimony and constructing the “legal truth” which supports their narrative.

In the post-war era, Poland has been viewed as a homogeneous country both culturally and linguistically. It has not, however, remained immune to the developments of globalization, which has also been reflected in the linguistic developments of the present century. In recent years, the Polish public space has been inundated with numerous foreign language names, signs, slogans, elements in advertisements and on billboards, with the English language largely in the foreground, and not infrequently competing against Polish in such spheres as services and the advertising even of Polish brands. The present discussion focuses on the results of a survey distributed among Polish respondents which, with the help of indirect and direct methods, asked them to evaluate products/services advertised in visual forms by means of English and other languages, and react to the visibility of these languages both on the Polish street and in the Polish lifestyle magazines. The objective of the study was to identify the attitudes with which English and other languages are viewed by Polish respondents when used in the Polish public space, and to also assess their position in comparison with Polish. The survey results demonstrate that despite a significant number of positive judgements which the respondents offered on the topic, negative views outnumbered the positive to a considerable degree.

In epic Greek both the optative and the indicative (the so-called “modal indicative”) can be used in contexts where the degree of realization is uncertain or even impossible, while in Attic Greek only the indicative is used. In these two articles I discuss whether there is a difference between the optative and the modal indicative in these contexts and/or if it can be determined which was the original mood. As there are about 1500 optatives and 250 modal indicatives in Homer, it is not possible to discuss them all and, therefore, I focus on the passages in which aorist forms of γιγνώσκω, βάλλωand of ἴδονappear, and those conditional constructions in the Odyssey in which the postposed conditional clause is introduced by εἰμήwith either a “modal” indicative or optative. The corpus comprises 100 forms (80 optatives and 20 indicatives), but in each example I also address the other modal indicatives and optatives in the passages, which adds another 50 forms to the corpus. In this part (part 2) I address the modal indicatives, and discuss the postposed conditional clauses introduced by εἰμήin the Odyssey, both in the indicative and the optative. Subsequently I analyze several instances in which the interpretation depends on the viewpoint of the hearer and the speakers, as what is pos­sible for a speaker might be impossible for the hearer and vice versa. When comparing the data relating to the optative and the indicative, and especially that of the postposed conditional clauses introduced by εἰμή, it can be noted that the indicative has more frequently an exclusively past reference and that it is more often genuinely unreal than the optative, which often combines the notion of the possible, remotely possible and unreal. In my opinion this clearly indicates that the indicative eventually prevailed and replaced the optative because of the past reference.

FINANSOWANIE

This research was conducted at the Università degli Studi di Verona as part of the project Particles in Greek and Hittite as Expression of Mood and Modality (PaGHEMMo), which received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Grant Agreement Number 101018097.

Although the earliest Turkisms that entered Arabic go back to the 9th century – when the Arabs began establishing regular contact with speakers of Turkic languages – a significant number of Turkish loans in both written and spoken Arabic only date from the time of the Ottoman Empire, which in the course of its expansion conquered and for centuries ruled a large part of the Arab world. This paper aims to examine the words of Turkish origin found in the dialects spoken in Egypt and parts of the Middle East (Syria, Lebanon, Palestine), i.e. the Arabophone regions that have been most exposed to Turkish influence for historical and cultural reasons. It has also been endeavoured to provide information about the etymology of the Ottoman-Turkish words (interestingly, as some of these come from Arabic, the Egyptian, Syrian, etc. words borrowed actually prove to be backborrowings).

Every dialogue is constrained by a rigid framework, which manifests itself in its linear character (an initial-continuation-counter move structure or a question-answer relationship and dismissal-argumentation order of dialogue), and which illustrates the functional dependencies between sentences or sequences of sentences. The following study focuses on the discourse-pragmatic notion of the interviewer’s text-forming strategies, and, in particular, the question-answer relationship of political news interviews in Great Britain. Attention is focused on the questioning strategies employed by Andrew Marr in The Andrew Marr Show. Various types of questions within epistemic logic, which act as the strategic repertoire of the participants in dialogue games (Carlson 1983), are examined. The list of question types includes indirect and direct questions, where the former refer to sentential (yes-no), search (wh-questions), conditional, alternative, tag, ellipted, disjunctive or conjunctive questions (as instances of multiple questions), and the latter to questions presupposing the accomplishment of the specific epistemic state. Andrew Marr, as a dominant participant in this dialogue game, at least with reference to his role that presupposes topic control (selection and change of topics), will use this strategic weapon to influence the politicians’ performance and make them account for their political actions.

In epic Greek both the optative and the indicative (the so-called “modal indicative”) can be used in contexts where the degree of realization is uncertain or even impossible, while in Attic Greek only the indicative is used. In these two articles I discuss whether there is a difference between the optative and the modal indicative in these contexts and/or if it can be determined which was the original mood. As there are about 1500 optatives and 250 modal indicatives in Homer, it is not possible to discuss them all and, therefore, I focus on the passages in which aorist forms of γιγνώσκω, βάλλω and of ἴδον appear, and those conditional constructions in the Odyssey in which the postposed conditional clause is introduced by εἰ μή with either a “modal” indicative or optative. The corpus comprises 100 forms (80 optatives and 20 indicatives), but in each example I also address the other modal indicatives and optatives in the passages, which adds another 50 forms to the corpus. In this part (part 1) I address the optative. First, I provide an overview of the research on the optative in Homeric Greek, discuss the different suggestions for the co-existence of the optative and indicative in these uncertain and/or unreal contexts, explanations which can be summarized into two categories, those assuming that the indicative replaced the optative and those arguing that both moods were original, but had different meanings. Then I explain why this corpus was chosen, prior to the analysis that focuses on two elements, namely the temporal reference (does the mood refer to the past or not) and the degree of possibility (is the action described likely, possible, remotely possible or unlikely/impossible). Initially I consider the optatives with a past reference, then the optatives that could be interpreted as remotely possible or unlikely/impossible (“irrealis” in the terminology of Classical Philology) and conclude by discussing two passages that have been reused in the epics in different contexts with different protagonists and, consequently, with different modal meanings for the same forms. The conclusion of the first part of the article is that the optative was at the most unreal extreme of the irrealis-continuum and could initially refer to the present and future, as well as the past, but that the instances in which there was an exclusive past reference were (very) rare.

In traditional linguistic research on German syntax the term “subordinate clause” is defined on the basis of its two distinguishing features, namely its syntactic-functional integration into the matrix, as well as its formal exponents (the presence of introductory elements and the placement of the finite verb at the end of the clause). However, this classical approach to subordination is in fact a descriptive simplification which leads to the exclusion of all reference to the scalar character of this category from syntactic description. In this paper, an alternative approach to subordination is presented through defining the dependent clause as a scalar category, encompassing a wide range of representatives differing in the degree of prototypicality. The proposed model consists of four interrelated components: a precisely defined set of integration features, type-independent general principles, a description of the type-specific clusters of integration features and the differences in the degree of integration between representatives of the same syntactic class, as well as construction-specific restrictions.

This paper analyzes fractional numerals in Turkic languages and classifies them into seven types based on morphological criteria. These types are then divided into three paradigms, the Paradigm of Origin (PO), the Paradigm of being Inside (PI) and the Paradigm of Belonging (PB), according to the underlying logic of the constructions. The emergence of each paradigm is also discussed, the conclusion being that they are of different origin.

Although the earliest Turkisms that entered Arabic go back to the 9th century – when the Arabs began establishing regular contact with speakers of Turkic languages – a significant number of Turkish loans in both written and spoken Arabic only dates from the time of the Ottoman Empire, which in the course of its expansion conquered and for centuries ruled a large part of the Arab world. This paper aims to examine the words of Turkish origin found in the dialects spoken in Egypt and part of the Middle East (Syria, Lebanon, Palestine), i.e. the Arabophone regions that have been most exposed to Turkish influence for historical and cultural reasons. Attempts have also been made to provide information about the etymology of the Ottoman-Turkish words (interestingly, as some of these come from Arabic, the Egyptian, Syrian, etc. words borrowed actually prove to be backborrowings).

This paper examines the formal prehistory of the cardinal numerals above “ten” from Proto-Iranian to Ossetic. Despite the widespread adoption in Ossetic of a vigesimal system of counting and semantic shift of “thousand” and “ten thousand” to generalized terms for large amounts, the evolution of these numerals may be reconstructed in detail. Noteworthy features are the general conservatism of the teens; retention of the nasal from Proto-Indo-Iranian in Digor insæj ‘twenty’, ærtin ‘thirty’ (cf. Vedic viṁśatí-, triṁśát-); survival of an older variant of ‘forty’ in Digor cæppors*, Iron cyppurs ‘Christmas’ < ‘(festival) of forty (days)’; and extension of Proto-Iranian *-āti from ‘seventy’ and ‘eighty’ to ‘fifty’ and ‘sixty’. Digor be(u)ræ, Iron biræ ‘many, much; very’ continues a thematized plural *baiwar-ai of Proto-Iranian *baiwar / n- ‘ten thousand’; if sædæ ‘hundred’ and ærzæ (ærʒæ) ‘countless number, myriad’ < ‘thousand’ also go back to preforms in *-ai, they were either remodeled after *baiwar-ai or generalized from duals, e.g. *duwai ćatai ‘two hundred’. The limited evidence for earlier stages of the language is given full consideration, including Sarmatian onomastics, word lists in early modern European sources, and the testimony of loanwords.

Acknowledgements

The research for this article has been supported by grant no. 2019/35/B/HS2/01273: “Ossetic historical grammar and the dialectology of early Iranian” from the Polish National Science Centre (NCN).

The purpose of this article is to explain the principle behind practice tests based on authentic short stories in English, describe their construction, and outline their ap­plication which aims to increase student knowledge and skills in a foreign language. The methodology employs digital practice tests created following a set of criteria for test development based on Bloom’s taxonomy. The results of the study indicate certain benefits of the practice tests: short stories introduce new vocabulary and the tests provide reinforcement, which both facilitates and motivates the students.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is supported by grant MU21-FMI-015 from the NPD at the University of Plovdiv “Paisii Hilendarski”, financed by the Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science.

Although the earliest Turkisms that entered Arabic go back to the 9th century – when the Arabs began establishing regular contact with speakers of Turkic languages – a significant number of Turkish loans in both written and spoken Arabic only dates from the time of the Ottoman Empire, which in the course of its expansion conquered and for centuries ruled a large part of the Arab world. This paper aims to examine the words of Turkish origin found in the dialects spoken in Egypt and part of the Middle East (Syria, Lebanon, Palestine), i.e. the Arabophone regions that have been most exposed to Turkish influence for historical and cultural reasons. Attempts have also been made to provide information about the etymology of the Ottoman-Turkish words (interestingly, as some of these come from Arabic, the Egyptian, Syrian, etc., words borrowed actually prove to be backborrowings).

In preference to the common assumption that Óðinn’s ravens daily gather general in­formation from around the world and report back to their master, this study identifies their principal informants as the newly dead (recently slain warriors and hanged men), and the information gathered not simply wisdom but tactical intelligence needed for the eventual cataclysmic battle of Ragnarǫk, in which Óðinn’s troop of fallen warriors, the Einherjar of Valhǫll (named in Gylfaginning in the same context as the ravens), will also participate. The study addresses the central questions of chthonic wisdom, of how the dead (are presumed to) know what is hidden from the living, and why Snorri, in contrast to the skalds, paints an innocuous picture of the ravens.

Chulym Turkic is still one of the lesser known and researched Turkic languages. Having said that, in the case of Middle Chulym several studies have been published in the last few years. Since Küärik lexical material is included in Radloff’s dictionary, the least attested is Lower Chulym: this can only be found in various works by Duĺzon, which are frequently difficult to obtain. In this discussion a short text which was originally published by Duĺzon in an article from 1952 is reproduced, after which a linguistic analysis is undertaken to determine the accuracy of Duĺzon’s translation. The text is interesting from both a linguistic and ethnographic perspective: it documents e.g. the use of the past tense in -AďigAn which is barely attested in Turkic languages. It also describes the funeral rites of Chulym Turks after their conversion to Christianity.

Although the earliest Turkisms that entered Arabic go back to the 9th century – when the Arabs began establishing regular contact with speakers of Turkic languages – a significant number of Turkish loans in both written and spoken Arabic only date from the time of the Ottoman Empire, which in the course of its expansion conquered and for centuries ruled a large part of the Arab world. This paper aims to examine the words of Turkish origin found in the dialects spoken in Egypt and parts of the Middle East (Syria, Lebanon, Palestine), i.e. the Arabophone regions that have been most exposed to Turkish influence for historical and cultural reasons. It has also been endeavoured to provide information about the etymology of the Ottoman-Turkish words (interestingly, as some of these come from Arabic, the Egyptian, Syrian, etc. words borrowed actually prove to be backborrowings).

Perceptual etymology is a new term which is introduced here to refer to an anthropological rather than a purely linguistic interpretation of the origins of words. This author tries to show in what way different aspects of our understanding of etymology can be combined to create a coherent and possibly full image of a word.

‘Whore barley’ is an English translation of a Croatian syntagm adduced in Evliya Çelebi’s itinerary. This author, intrigued by the apparently senseless expression, tries to explain its meaning.

Conducting a video-based experiment in English, Japanese and Thai, Matsumoto et al. (2017) report that deictic verbs are more frequently used when the motion is not just toward the speaker but also into his/her functional space (i.e. functional HERE of the speaker) defined by limits of interaction and visibility as well as when the motion is accompanied by an interactional behaviour of the Figure such as greeting the speaker. They claim that directional venitive prepositional phrases (henceforth PPs) like toward me do not exhibit this feature, though. This paper aims to reevaluate these proposals (Matsumoto et al. 2017) in Ilami Kurdish (henceforth IK), thereby figuring out whether the functional nature of deictic verbs observed in the three studied languages is also attested in this dialect. In line with the findings reported by Matsumoto et al. (2017), results of this research reveal that the semantics of venitive verbs of motion in IK is spatial and functional at the same time. In other words, these verbs are more often used in the verbal descriptions of the IK participants, when the Figure shares a functional space with the speaker induced by limits of interaction and visibility, and also when he/she smiles at or greets the speaker. Importantly, results show that venitive PPs in IK can be functional in nature or add some functional meaning (in addition to their spatial meaning) to the verb, so that participants utilize venitive adpositions along with the venitive verb to add emphasis on the kind of motion (to be a venitive one) and express that the Figure would be “very close” to the speaker at the end of motion.

These findings suggest that although the functional nature of venitive verbs of motion seems to have a universal foundation, languages may also exhibit some nuances in the functional scope of these expressions.

This paper presents two small-scale acoustic phonetic studies investigating the pronunciation of sibilant-stop (ST) consonant clusters in Polish, and in the L2 speech of L1 Polish learners of English. In English, aspiration of fortis stops is not attested in the post-/s/ context. Rather, short-lag voice onset time (VOT) measures are observed in L1 English in post-/s/ stop consonants, a phonetic weakening that renders them phonetically similar in terms of VOT to lenis stops in initial position. In Polish, both voiced and voiceless stops may appear after sibilant fricatives. The acoustic results suggest that (1) L1 Polish does not weaken its stops in ST clusters, and (2) that more L1 Polish speakers exhibit some weakening in their L2 English clusters as a function of proficiency, but do not produce native-like VOTs in ST sequences. Implications of these findings for L2 speech research and the phonological status of ST clusters are discussed.

The Finnish epic Kalevala is written in the so-called Finnic “Kalevala-metre”, typical of Finnic oral poetry. Its main features are the use of trochaic tetrameter (octosyllabic lines), alliteration, assonance, sound parallelisms and the repetition of words. It is difficult to retain those features in translation but one of the early successful attempts was the first full English translation directly from Finnish by William Forsell Kirby (1907). Kirby’s translation was a source of inspiration and the linguistic model for The Story of Kullervo, a tale written by John Ronald Reuel Tolkien (probably in 1912), based on one of the Kalevala’s stories. Our aim is to compare those texts.

This paper has been inspired by Roberto Dapit’s study of 2021. My aim is to show the sense of using what can be called “perceptual etymology” (analogically to “perceptual dialectology”) along with and in contrast to the “scholarly etymology”.

Franklin D. Roosevelt’s accent is often used as an illustration of the elite pronunciation heard among the north-eastern US upper classes until roughly the mid 20th century. Known under several names and often considered a mixture of British and American features, this variety is frequently identified with the American Theatre Standard, a norm popularized by acting schools in the early 20th century. Working on the assumption that Roosevelt is an exemplar of the north-eastern standard, the aim of the current study is a preliminary acoustic exploration of his accent with the aim of assessing the plausibility of such comparisons, focusing on the dress, trap, bath, start and lot vowels. Density plots created based on F1 and F2 measured in eight radio speeches were used to examine the relative position of these vowels in the vowel space. Linear mixed-effects regression was then used to model F1 and F2 in selected pairs of vowels to determine whether the differences along the two formant dimensions are significant. The results confirm a conclusion reached in an earlier auditory study (Brandenburg, Braden 1952) according to which Roosevelt’s bath was variable between [æ] and a lower and retracted [a], a vowel quality found in Eastern New England and in American Theatre Pronunciation. At the same time, a merged start/lot vowel in Roosevelt’s speech makes it unjustified to fully identify his accent with the latter variety.

This paper discusses the etymology of the Russian word пантера ‘panther’ and its other variants in Old Russian and Russian. The Greek word πάνθηρis a direct or indirect source of all of the investigated forms, but several other languages (Old Church Slavonic, German, French) are involved in the borrowing process as media. The solutions proposed in the article are based on extended method inventory, which includes both traditional methods of historical linguistics and some new proposals connected with extralinguistic factors (Wörter und Sachen method).

This study examines the idiolect of Сашко – a hyper-multilingual global nomad whose language repertoire draws on forty languages, ten of which he speaks with native or native-like proficiency. By analyzing grammatical and lexical features typifying Сашко’s translanguaging practices (code-switches, code-borrowings, and code-mixes), as documented in the corpus of reflexive notes that span the last twenty-five years, the author designs Сашко’s translanguaged grammar. Instead of being a passive additive pluralization of separated, autonomous, and static monolects, Сашко’s grammar emerges as a deeply orchestrated, unitary, and dynamic strategy. From Сашко’s perspective, this grammar constitutes a tool to express his rebellious and defiant identity; a tool that – while aiming to combat Western mono-culturalisms, compartmented multilingualisms, and nationalisms – ultimately leads to Сашко’s linguistic and cultural homelessness. This paper – the last in a series of three articles – is dedicated to Сашко’s mixed languages and translanguaged grammar typifying Сашко-lect in its integrity.

Use of the demonstrative pronoun ese “that, that man” in familiar North American Spanish speech is traced to Andalusian Spanish and the influence of Caló, the cryptolect of the Iberian Roma. In early para-Romani, the inherited four-term deictic system (situational/contextual, general/specific) yields to the very differently organized Romance three-part paradigm (este, ese, aquel), as, concurrently, Caló locative adverbs often replace personal pronouns. Yet, even after the wholesale replacement of Caló demonstratives by Spanish forms, the function of an earlier deictic vocative phrasing is maintained in ese, to be understood as you, right there, my conversational partner.

This paper addresses the issue of focus dissipation as a narrative and mimetic technique based on ludic transformations of Figure/Ground correlation in literary text. Such transformations are triggered by text-driven attentional shifts that violate, shatter, or split the integrity of focal elements in literary texture, thus generating a range of verbal and/or multimodal stylistic effects. Woolf’s “Blue & Green” (1921) suggests a sample of condensed mimetic and diegetic manifestations of focusing/refocusing/defocusing, which heightens textual ambiguity caused by temporal, spatial, epistemic, colour, and substance oscillations. The split of initially focal elements into a set of microfoci, accompanied by the interaction of sensory (visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and kinesthetic) modes, gives rise to what is known as verbal holography in literary mimesis. The motion of foci, highlighted by the wave-like chains of short nominative sentences and excessive syntactic parallelism, creates a narrative construal of dynamism vs. stability as an iconic trigger of the readers’ emotional response.

* This paper is part of the project “Linguistics of Intermediality and the Challenges of Today: Polymodality of Mind, Intersemioticity of Text, Polylogue of Cultures” (Grant of Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, UkrRISTI Registration Number 0119U100934).

There is a sizeable group of words in Turkish whose ultimate origin is known to be Arabic but whose direct donor language is unclear. The paper analyses 69 such words, and compares the phonetic adaptations present in them, to those attested in Arabisms as well as to those found in Farsisms, in order to determine the probability of them belonging to one group or the other. The results are compared to the opinions of the main etymological dictionaries of Turkish, splitting them into two camps.

The present article constitutes the second part of a brief critical analysis of the research on attitude and attitude-(speech) behaviour relations. Its major aim is to show that the contribution from the socio-psychological paradigm can prove relevant and valuable when applied to sociolinguistic research on attitude and attitude-behaviour relations. The author argues that attitudinal investigations in sociolinguistics, despite their popularity and rich history, frequently suffer from a number of methodological and theoretical flaws. The author advances an argument that a reconceptualization of the construct of attitude and some additional methodological principles can help refine the whole paradigm of language attitude research. Specifically, it is pointed out that a cognitive/information-processing approach to attitude formation, the theory of planned behaviour and other theoretical and methodological insights discussed in this paper can prove immensely rewarding and can give a new impetus for further research.

In the article the author once again deals with the title/address for Hui Muslim imāms, Āhōng (阿訇), – a topic about which he already gave some information in a miscella published in Knüppel (2020). To this some further details on historical attempts of etymology are given in the text presented here.

This paper examines the factors influencing syntactical transfer in TLA. There are several factors that influence syntactic transfer in TLA: linguistic (such as typology); individual (such as learners’ “attention control” and age); psycho-linguistic (such as psychotypology and the learners’ awareness of cognates); and other factors (such as L2 type and amount of instruction). In summary, it was found that negative syntactic transfer from both L1 and L2 to L3 occurs when (a) languages are typologically dissimilar (b) learners’ “attention control ability” is low, and (c) L2 level of proficiency and exposure is advanced and L3 level of proficiency is low. In contrast, positive syntactic transfer from L1 and L2 to L3 occurs when (a) languages are typologically similar, (b) students perceive these languages as similar, and (c) L1 and L2 level of proficiency is high and L3 level of proficiency is low. Additionally, the learners’ age was found to potentially influence the language (L1 or L2) from which the transfer occurs into L3: L3 adult learners may count more on their L2 as a source of positive syntactic transfer into L3 whereas children may count more on their L1 as a source of positive syntactic transfer into L3. Finally, it was found that when L1, L2, and L3 are equally proximate, it is the L2 that has the primary influence on positive and negative syntactic transfer in TLA.

The fact that Turkish palatalized consonants ḱ and ǵ are rendered ć and ‹đ› = ʒ́, respectively, in Croatian and Serbian was not discussed in detail thus far. This author is trying to settle the source(s), the mechanism, the time and the place of the change.

This study examines the idiolect of Сашко – a hyper-multilingual global nomad whose language repertoire draws on forty languages, ten of which he speaks with native or native-like proficiency. By analyzing grammatical and lexical features typifying Сашко’s translanguaging practices (code-switches, code-borrowings, and code-mixes), as documented in the corpus of reflexive notes that span the last twenty-five years, the author designs Сашко’s translanguaged grammar. Instead of being a passive additive pluralization of separated, autonomous, and static monolects, Сашко’s grammar emerges as a deeply orchestrated, unitary, and dynamic strategy. From Сашко’s perspective, this grammar constitutes a tool to express his rebellious and defiant identity; a tool that – while aiming to combat Western mono-culturalisms, compartmented multilingualisms, and nationalisms – ultimately leads to Сашко’s linguistic and cultural homelessness. This paper – the second in a series of three – is dedicated to language-contact mechanisms operating in Сашко-lect: code-switching and borrowing.

With this paper the writers continue their series of articles on Chinese Muslim elementary vocabulary. As already mentioned in the first part, in most Chinese dictionaries the specific elementary vocabulary of Islam is omitted. The paper in hand deals with the funeral terminology of Chinese Muslim. In contrast to the prayer terminology, we can only find one direct borrowing in Sino-Arabic, but no Sino-Persian transcription (Arabic and Persian loanwords phonetically transcribed with Chinese characters) among the funeral terms. More often the common Chinese terms are also used in the specific Muslim context. Furthermore, it is obvious that the number of terms is somehow limited comparing to the prayer terminology.

The main goal of this research was to discover the influence of high frequency sensorineural hearing loss on familiar speaker recognition during earwitnessing line-ups. The secondary objectives were to estimate the influence of familiarity with voices of the suspects on performance in the auditory speaker recognition test, and to correlate the results with forensically important factors such as a confidence scale from the line-up markings. The recordings from the line-up sessions were low-pass filtered to ensure an equal degree of signal distortion for all subjects and imitate the moderate, severe and profound hearing loss conditions. The results show that the correlation between mimicked hearing impairment and ability to identify a familiar speaker is statistically significant. It was observed that higher degree of signal distortion caused lower accuracy of recognition. Interestingly, it was reported that higher levels of familiarity and exposure to speakers’ voices had a negative effect on speaker identification.

This study examines the idiolect of Сашко – a hyper-multilingual global nomad whose language repertoire draws on forty languages, ten of which he speaks with native or native-like proficiency. By analyzing grammatical and lexical features typifying Сашко’s translanguaging practices (code-switches, code-borrowings, and code-mixes), as docu­mented in the corpus of reflexive notes that span the last twenty-five years, the author designs Сашко’s translanguaged grammar. Instead of being a passive additive plurali­zation of separated, autonomous, and static monolects, Сашко’s grammar emerges as a deeply orchestrated, unitary, and dynamic strategy. From Сашко’s perspective, this grammar constitutes a tool to express his rebellious and defiant identity; a tool that – while aiming to combat Western mono-culturalisms, compartmented multilingualisms, and nationalisms – ultimately leads to Сашко’s linguistic and cultural homelessness. This paper – the first in the series of three articles – is dedicated to methodological is­sues: the frameworks that are adopted in the different parts of the study, the method with which the description and analysis of Сашко’s idiolect is developed, and the corpus that underlies the empirical research of Сашко-lect.

The aim of this paper is to contrast the near-synonymous Polish classifiers kupa ‘heap’, sterta ‘pile’, and stos ‘stack’, all of which encode upward-oriented arrangements of objects or substances and thus prototypically combine with concrete inanimate nouns, by means of a collocational analysis conducted on naturally-occurring data derived from the Na­tional Corpus of Polish. The results of the empirical investigation point to a tendency for kupa ‘heap’ to combine predominantly with mass nouns denoting amorphous, frequently natural, stuff, whereas sterta ‘pile’ and stos ‘stack’ exhibit a pronounced predilection for count N2-collocates referring to artefacts. In a similar vein, while both sterta ‘pile’ and stos ‘stack’ typically stand for aggregates formed by a volitional human agent, it is not infrequent for kupa ‘heap’ to classify portions of substances whose shape is a result of the forces of nature or merely constitutes a by-effect of activities intended to achieve goals other than arranging stuff into units. What differentiates between sterta ‘pile’ and stos ‘stack’, however, is that constructional solidity appears a more salient feature of the latter item, hence its capability of applying to vertical collections of entities marked by an orderly internal structure.

The present paper examines the factors influencing lexical transfer in third language acquisition (TLA) by examining studies devoted to lexical transfer from L1 and L2 into L3 that were mainly conducted in Europe. There are several factors that have influence on lexical transfer: linguistic (such as typology), contextual (such as naturalistic setting vs. formal setting), psycho-linguistic (such as psychotypology and the learners’ aware­ness of cognates), individual (such as learners’ age) and other factors (such as L2/L3 proficiency level). The results of the survey indicate that negative lexical transfer from both L1 and L2 to L3 occurs (a) in naturalistic contexts, (b) when languages are typo­logically similar, (c) when students perceive these languages as similar, and (d) when L2 proficiency level is high and L3 proficiency level low. In contrast, positive lexical transfer from L2 to L3 occurs (a) in formal settings, (b) when students perceive these languages as similar, (c) when learners’ awareness of true cognates is high, and (d) when both L2 and L3 proficiency level are high. Additionally, the learners’ age was found to potentially predict the relative weight of lexical transfer in TLA in the following manner: negative lexical transfer from L1 and L2 to L3 may increase with age. Finally, it was found that when L1, L2, and L3 are equally proximate, it is the L1 that has the primary influence on lexical transfer in TLA.

The present article constitutes the first part of a brief critical analysis of the research on attitude and attitude-(speech) behaviour relations. Its major aim is to show that the contribution from the socio-psychological paradigm can prove relevant and valuable when applied to sociolinguistic research on attitude and attitude-behaviour relations. The author argues that attitudinal investigations in sociolinguistics, despite their popu­larity and rich history, frequently suffer from a number of methodological and theoretical flaws. The author advances an argument that a reconceptualization of the construct of attitude and certain methodological principles can help refine the whole language at­titudes paradigm. Specifically, it is pointed out that a cognitive/information-processing approach to attitude formation, the theory of planned behaviour and other theoretical and methodological insights discussed in this paper can prove immensely rewarding and can give a new impetus for further research.

This paper presents a series of addenda to Stanisław Stachowski’s Historisches Wörter­buch der Bildungen auf -cı // -ıcı im Osmanisch-Türkischen (1996). The data are taken from transcription texts prior to Meninski (1680) – comprising both lexicographical and documentary texts – and listed in chronological order, according to the pattern I have already followed in previous papers of mine intended to supplement Stachowski’s other historical-lexicographical works.

This paper gives a survey of approaches to the analysis of Virginia Woolf’s “Blue & Green” (1921), a meditative sketch, a prose poem that belongs to experimental modernist prose, integrating various mimetic and diegetic techniques highlighting the issue of colour perception from its symbolic, eidetic, and intermedial perspectives tightly linked to the specificity of human imagination. The paper brings these research perspectives together, elaborating them to further introduce, in the forthcoming paper, a new vista of Woolf’s “Blue & Green” interpretation via the phenomenon of focus dissipation as a ludic narra­tive and/or mimetic technique based on text-driven attentional shifts.

* This paper is part of the project “Linguistics of Intermediality and the Challenges of Today: Polymodality of Mind, Intersemioticity of Text, Polylogue of Cultures” (Grant of Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine, UkrRISTI Registration Number 0119U100934).

This paper presents a series of addenda to Stanisław Stachowski’s Historisches Wörter­buch der Bildungen auf -cı // -ıcı im Osmanisch-Türkischen (1996). The data are taken from transcription texts prior to Meninski (1680) – comprising both lexicographical and documentary texts – and listed in chronological order, according to the pattern I have already followed in previous papers of mine intended to supplement Stachowski’s other historical-lexicographical works.

Etymologies are proposed for twelve previously unexplained English words from work­ing-class or underclass English vocabulary. Treated in Part 2 of this study are aloof/aluff, boondoggle, and welch/jew/gyp. Common features are isolation, extended use, pejoration, and treatment by lexicographers with varying degrees of proscriptiveness and by word buffs with enthusiastic amateur etymologizing.

This is the second part of a study begun in Sayers (2020). 

Slovak has never had especially intense contacts with Turkish or any other Turkic lan­guage. This author tries to show that loanwords called “Turkisms in Slovak” neverthe­less call for more attention and research than one might initially think as well as that, indeed, there possibly exist a few words borrowed directly from Turkish into Slovak. These words may, at least sometimes, reflect an old colloquial pronunciation variant in the speech of Turkish soldiers and are, thus, a Slovak contribution to investigation into Turkish linguistic history.

In the final part of the investigation into the use of the (un)augmented 3rd singular forms ἔθηκε(ν) and θῆκε(ν) in the Iliad, I focus on some loose ends, such as the enjambments, the compound forms, the formulaic nature of the epic language, the subordinate and negative sentences, and on some thornier issues such as the exceptions to the rules and the Mycenaean te ke and do ke and what this can tell us about the original meaning and origin of the augment.¹

¹The acknowledgements are the same as in De Decker (2020a). 

In the article, which forms the first part of a series on Chinese Hui-Muslim religious terminology, the authors are dealing with the Hui Muslim prayer terminology, that can roughly be divided into direct and indirect loans. While the direct loans are bor­rowings from Arabic or Persian, the indirect loans are formed by the means of the own languages (so-called calques).

* The present paper results from some fieldwork in the context of socio-linguistic research on the Hui-Muslim communities in the province of Shāndōng in 2018 and 2019.

This paper presents a series of addenda to Stanisław Stachowski’s Historisches Wörter­buch der Bildungen auf -cı // -ıcı im Osmanisch-Türkischen (1996). The data are taken from transcription texts prior to Meninski (1680) – comprising both lexicographical and documentary texts – and listed in chronological order, according to the pattern I have already followed in previous papers of mine intended to supplement Stachowski’s other historical-lexicographical works.

Etymologies are proposed for twelve previously unexplained English words from working-class or underclass English vocabulary. Treated in Part 1 of this study are cod as ‘dupe’ and codswallop, mollycoddle / mollycot, natty, and yokel. Common features are isolation, extended use, pejoration, and treatment by lexicographers with varying degrees of proscriptiveness and by word buffs with enthusiastic amateur etymologizing.

The article deals with the transcriptions of the Old East Slavic toponym Kyjevъas found in the Arabic classical geographical literature. The author critically assesses the latest contributions to the study of this toponym and the respective readings offered by the orientalists since the times of Christian Martin Frähn. Based on the well-known readings and paleographic reconstructions, the author elaborates on several formative models (stemmata) of the Arabic transcriptions of the toponym Kyjevъ which are all interrelated and chronologically attuned to the prehistorical change kū- > kī in Common Slavic.

In this article, I discuss the use and absence of the augment in the 3rd singular forms ἔθηκε(ν) and θῆκε(ν) in the Iliad. In the previous article (De Decker 2020), I explained why I chose this corpus and determined the value of the different forms. Here I proceed to the actual analysis of the forms: do they confirm the previous syntactic and semantic observations that have been made for the use and absence of the augment (the clitic rule by Drewitt and Beck, the reduction rule by Kiparsky and the distinctions: speech versus narrative, foreground versus background and remote versus recent past)?

In the report the author explains his aspired project of the edition of Edward Sapir’s Com­parative dictionary of Indo-Chinese and Na-Dene, kept as a manuscript in the Franz Boas estate in the library of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. The manu­script forms one volume of Sapir’s Com­parative dictionary of Na-Dene languages.

After presenting the history of the problem, the present author focuses on three main underdiscussed or unsolved issues: (1) can Old Russian and Old Czech spellings sug­gesting a voiced spirant be reasonably explained away as secondary? (2) can a (near-)homonymous and potentially motivating appellative be found in the Polish or Slavic lexical traditions? (3) and why was the prince named in such way? The answer to the first question is negative, while the second one cannot for the moment be answered with certainty and needs further scrutiny. The author concludes that the name was *Mьžьka (as previously supposed by Fenikowski, Bańkowski, Mańczak, Sucharski and Witczak) and originated probably as a protective name aiming at preventing the child from ominous vision problems.

Traditions of Carannog, a Welsh saint of about the year 550, appear in his vita prima written in the twelfth century and surviving in a copy of the thirteenth (his vita secunda, a mere fragment, is not discussed here). The vita prima is best known for what it says on Arthur. Carannog leaves Wales, encounters King Arthur in south-west Britain, even­tually gains his support, and is given lands near Arthur’s stronghold of Din Draithou. The location of that fortress has been obscure, but it must have been famous, because it figures in the ninth-century Historia Brittonum, as also the Glossary of Cormac (d. 908), bishop-king of Cashel in south-west Ireland.

The article presents a brief overview of the achievements of Bulgarian onomastics in the contemporary age, from the turn of the century until the present day. It reviews the most significant works in toponymy and anthroponymy, the field’s two main branches, as well as disciplines that are less developed in the country, such as astronomy. Particular focus has been placed on the new research uncovering the traces left by the Thracian language in modern Bulgarian onomastics. The work presents some conclusions concerning the contributions of onomastic science in Bulgaria in the past few years.

Place-name research seems to be dominated by etymological questions. But other per­spectives are important as well, as is demonstrated in one particular case: the convic­tion Thietmar of Merseburg manifests in his chronicle in the early 11th century that the place of his bishopric seat was named after Mars, the Roman god of war. This was not just his personal belief, but rather it fully corresponds with the then prevailing beliefs used in explaining the world and names at that time. And, seemingly, this prominent etymology raised the importance and prestige of the place and its imperial palace, as it is outlined in the present article.

This paper presents a series of addenda to Stanisław Stachowski’s Historisches Wörter­buch der Bildungen auf -cı // -ıcı im Osmanisch-Türkischen (1996). The data are taken from transcription texts prior to Meninski (1680) ‒ comprising both lexicographical and documentary texts ‒ and listed in chronological order, according to the pattern I have already followed in previous papers of mine intended to supplement Stachowski’s other historical-lexicographical works.

In this article, I analyze the use and absence of the augment in the 3rd singular forms ἔθηκε(ν) and θῆκε(ν) in the Iliad and try to determine the value of the transmitted forms. In doing so I first analyze the forms by checking permitted elisions and by applying metrical laws, bridges and caesurae. The forms that can be analyzed by those criteria are of type A (metrically secure). I then proceed to the forms whose value cannot be established by these metrical criteria and check if an “internal reconstruction” can solve the issue. The method I use is based on Barrett’s metrical and morphological analyses of the augment in Euripides and Taida’s analyses on the augment in the Homeric Hymns. This method analyzes the metrically insecure forms by looking at their position in the verse, the passages in which they appear, and by comparing them to the metrically se­cure forms in the same paradigm. The forms that can be analyzed by this method are catalogued type B; the forms that cannot are of type C. The forms of type A and type B will be the basis for subsequent syntactic and semantic analyses of the augment use in these forms in the Iliad (elsewhere in this journal).

The article was made possible by a fellowship BOF.PDO.2016.0006.19 of the research council of the Universiteit Gent (BOF, Bijzonder Onderzoeksfonds), by a travel grant V426317N for a research stay in Oxford (provided by the FWO Vlaanderen, Fonds voor Wetenschappe­lijk Onderzoek Vlaanderen, Science Foundation Flanders) and by a postdoctoral fellowship 12V1518N, granted by the FWO Vlaanderen.

The miscellanea deals with the use of the title of / address to Imāms, Āhōng (阿訇), among China’s Hui Muslims. The title/address of Persian origin is used by different groups of speakers in various ways of pronounciation.

The study compares educated Poznań speech on the basis of a study byWitaszek-Samborska (1985, 1986) and a corpus compiled thirty years later. Thefeatures of Poznań speech, examined on 14 speakers from the corpus, include:voicing of obstruents before heterolexical sonorants (okszyg emocji), realizationof word-final ‹-ą› as [-ɔm] (idom tom drogom), realization of /stʂ tʂ dʐ/ as /ʂt͡ʂ t͡ʂ d͡ʐ/ (szczelać), the presence of the velar nasal [ŋ] before a heteromorphemic velarplosive /k/ (okienko), realization of word-final ‹-ej› as /-i(j)/ or /-ɨ(j)/ (lepi(j)), presenceof prothetic [w] before word-initial /ɔ/ (łojciec), presence of voiced /v/ in clusterswith preceding voiceless consonants (trwały), and realization of ‹-śmy› as [ʑmɨ](słyszelˈiśmy). The results suggest a change in Poznań speech and point towardsdialect levelling.

In many American films actors and actresses, native speakers of English who impersonate foreign characters, make an attempt to speak English with a foreign accent. The present paper is the first attempt at analyzing imitated Polish-accented English in two well-known Hollywood productions. It examines, compares and assesses the most salient phonetic properties of the accents employed by two American stars: Meryl Streep appearing as Zofia Zawistowska in Sophie’s Choice (1982) and Jessica Chastain playing the role of Antonina Żabińska in The Zookeeper’s Wife (2017). The major goal, however, is to study the perception of the two accents in order to establish whether they can be regarded as cases of genuine Polish-English speech. The analysis is carried out by means of a three-step procedure. First, a list of typical features of a Polish accent in English is established in consultation with several specialists in Polish English pronunciation. Next, both actresses’ accents are examined with regard to these properties. In the third stage their speech and two samples of a genuine Polish-English accent are assessed by a group of 100 participants (66 Polish students and 34 native speakers of English) in a perception study. The obtained results show that M. Streep’s accent is more accurate and contains more features of authentic Polish English than J. Chastain’s, which is reflected in the Polish listeners’ credibility judgements. Nevertheless, native English listeners view the two actresses’ accents as Polish to a similar extent.

The paper, from the field of broadly conceived text studies, focuses on those aspects of the visual arts that bear a storytelling potential, on analogy to verbal texts. My interest lies mainly in the field of artistic semiotics, that is in the texts marked with aesthetic qualities. The attention will go mainly to figural painting and sculpture due to their potential to show events as evolving in time. Thus, I intend to consider the manner in which narrativization as a widely recognized cognitive propensity of the human mind to impose structure upon reality and best realized in verbal storytelling is applicable to pictorial representations and how it takes part in the construction of visual possible worlds/visual text worlds. This article is thus a contribution to semiotic research in intermediality and transmediality in interart relations.

The paper collects some Yiddish words which do not lend themselves to easy translation and investigates the way they are rendered into Japanese. This is done with the example of the 1999 Japanese translation of Yitsk hok Katsenelson’s Song of the murdered Jewish people. Japanese renderings of selected fifteen lexemes reflecting the culture, religion and everyday life of the Yiddish speakers are gathered, analyzed as for their structure and compared with their German, English, Spanish, French, Polish and Russian counterparts.

Section 9 deals with variation, i.e. words that are used in different combinations, section 10 with the sequence of the elements and possible reasons for the sequence (phonologic, semantic, translational), and section 11 with the relation to Lydgate’s Latin source. Section 12 traces Lydgate’s relation to Chaucer: It is well known that Lydgate was a Chaucerian, i.e. an admirer and follower of Chaucer, but perhaps not so well known that he also used many binomials which Chaucer had used. Section 13 lists the binomials that can be regarded as formulaic, and section 14 singles out a pair of binomials where the first binomial is apparently learned, while the second states the same fact in more popular terms. Section 15 provides a conclusion, and Appendix I lists all binomials that occur at the beginning of Lydgate’s Troy Book. The figure in Appendix II shows the Primum Mobile and the seat of God according to the Medieval world picture (as discussed in section 14).

This multi-part study continues an inquiry earlier initiated in these pages into words listed in Oxford English dictionary as still without satisfactory etymologies. Loans from a variety of source languages are reviewed, accompanied by commentary on earlier lexicographical praxis as it relates to various popular registers of English.

This article concludes a study initiated under the same title in volume 136, issue 1 (2019) of this journal. The present group of words to be examined is drawn from the vocabulary for the harvesting of natural resources

Bearing in mind the importance of attitude in sociolinguistic research and its huge theoretical potential for accounting for various language behaviours, it is surprising to see numerous misconceptions concerning this construct and its conceptualization as well as criticism as to its role in predicting and explaining speech behaviour (cf., for instance, Cargile, Giles 1997: 195; Edwards 1999: 109; Ladegaard 2000: 229–230; Garrett 2001: 630; Soukup 2012; Taylor, Marsden 2014). The author claims that attitude research can still prove very insightful and helpful in sociolinguistic theory building, but to do so, one needs to reconceptualize attitude along the reasoned action approach on the foundations of which the theory of planned behaviour rests. The theory posits that attitude is one of the three general predictors having a sufficient explanatory and predictive power in the case of most human behaviours. The major goal of the present article  is to report on a study attempting to apply the theory of planned behaviour to explain why students of English being given an alternative to choose either an English or American accent as a target model to learn opt for one and not the other. The second goal of the article is to discuss the role of language attitudes in determining students’ decisions. Part 2 of the article elaborates on the main study as well as includes a brief discussion followed by suggestions for further research. 

The present article deals with the Tajik language used in modern public inscriptions (sign-boards, sign-posts, billboard advertisements, political banners, etc.) documented in about 400 photographs taken in Tajikistan by various individuals in recent years. Some sociolinguistic problems are discussed (especially in the case of multilingual inscriptions) as well as morphology, vocabulary, word-formation and syntax of the texts in question.

In the following paper selected Greek words with initial zd- or h-, which could have developed from Proto-Indo-European initial Hi̭ or i̭-, are analyzed. In the first part the position of the Greek language within the Indo-European family, the Laryngeal Theory and the history of research on the development of initial glide (H)i̭-- in Greek are commented on. In the main segment, divided between the two parts of the paper, the criteria of the selection of the Greek words are put forward and the selected thirteen words analyzed in the light of the development of their initial segments. In the second part, the conclusions made on the basis of the analysis are confronted with theories on scenarios of relative chronology of the sound changes. Finally, typological data is adduced to favour one of the possible scenarios of changes.

Section 1 provides a very brief introduction to Lydgate, who was probably the most prolific English poet. He was also fond of rhetoric and frequently employed binomials. A short definition of binomials is given in section 2. Section 3 looks at the relation of binomials and multinomials, section 4 at the density and function of binomials, section 5 at previous research, and section 6 sketches formal features of binomials (especially structure, word-classes, alliteration). Section 7 discusses the etymological structure of binomials (native word + native word, loan-word + loan-word, native word + loan-word, loan-word + native word), and the so-called translation theory. Section 8 deals with the semantic structure of binomials, i.e. the semantic relation between the two words that make up a binomial. The main relations are synonymy, antonymy, and complementarity – the latter has many subgroups.

This multi-part study continues an inquiry earlier initiated in these pages into words listed in Oxford English dictionary as still without satisfactory etymologies. Loans from a variety of source languages are reviewed, accompanied by commentary on earlier lexicographical praxis as it relates to various popular registers of English.

It would not be an easy task to find a Slavic linguist who had never heard about the Ottoman Turkish influence upon Balkan Slavic. Nevertheless, this author argues that caution should be exercised with the term which is inconsistent with the Turkological understanding of “Ottoman”. In the final part of the paper some terminological suggestions are made.

The influence of English on German has resulted in not only the direct importation of a vast number of English loanwords but also their hybridization with native German elements. The most common types of language hybrids, or loanblends, using Haugen’s (1950) terminology, in German include blended compounds containing one element from the source language and another from the receptor language (e.g. Businessbereich ‘business sector’ and Krafttraining ‘strength training’) in addition to blended derivations where autochthonous derivational affixes are attached to English stems (e.g. sportlich ‘sporty’ and rumsurfen ‘to surf around’). This paper contributes to the investigation of how, and to what extent, English elements become morphologically embedded into German by analyzing the English-German hybrid formations from a corpus of everyday spoken German (42,429 types and 1,280,773 tokens) and the texts appearing in the Spiegel newsmagazine from the year 2000 (287,301 types and 5,202,583 tokens). General findings indicate that the most common form of hybridization is the compounding of English specifiers with German heads and much less the attachment of German morphemes (both derivational affixes and semi-affixes) to English stems in both spoken and written texts. These forms of hybridization demonstrate both the productive word formation processes of German as well as its contact-induced lexical enrichment beyond the mere direct borrowing of loanwords. However, when analyzed separately, the most frequently-occurring specifiers and heads were anglicisms. A slight preference for German affixation (affixes and semi-affixes) was found in the spoken corpus with the Spiegel corpus containing more English semi-affixes.

In the analysis of language contact and borrowing, the category of internationalism denotes lexical items that are formally and semantically similar across unrelated languages, mainly of neo-classical origin. Internationalisms are characteristically unmarked for a specific national provenance, like the pair En electricity / It elettricità. On the other hand, many similar examples, such as En romantic and It romantico, are the result of borrowings from English into Italian, a fact that can be established only on historical grounds, because the word itself does not reveal any trace of foreignness to the lay Italian speaker, being Italian a Latin-based language. In this paper, the lexical category of internationalism will be defined and set apart from other outcomes of language contact, like direct and indirect Anglicisms, Anglo-Latinisms, and other forms of linguistic kinship between these two, partly unrelated, European languages. Linguistic factors such as etymology, route of transmission, and non-linguistic ones such as historical events and motivation for borrowing (Wexler 1969) are used for this analysis, which will be applied to relevant examples of Italian vocabulary.

This article is intended to explore the linguistic means of anglicization in Cuban Spanish. Thus, a corpus-driven database or glossary of this variant of Spanish has been elaborated to examine these English-induced units quantitatively and qualitatively, entailing a morpho-syntactic and semantic analysis of the anglicization process. This research study is based on two major stages: data collection and data processing of the lemmas compiled. The resulting glossary of this part of the study is used to unravel the semantic traits of the English-induced units, chiefly related to the processes of polysemy and calquing. A compilation of these Cuban-Spanish anglicisms leads to a better understanding of meaning extension and lexical creativity, in keeping with the historical socioeconomic conditions of the island. The collection of colloquialisms, vulgarisms or obsolete words corroborates the diastratic and diaphasic evolution of lemmas, and unveils some distinctive word-building patterns.

The article examines psychological and pedagogical contexts of the birth and the development of formative evaluation in second and foreign language teaching and learning. Research on its educational value, meta-analyses and case studies conducted in a number of school systems under the auspices of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) are presented with examples of ways in which research informed the educational policy of various countries and impacted on school evaluation strategies. Attention is given to challenges and controversies faced by schools in the process of implementing formative evaluation and/or integrating it with summative approaches. Implications are also sought for pre- and in-service teacher education.

Bearing in mind the importance of attitude in sociolinguistic research and its huge theoretical potential for accounting for various language behaviours, it is surprising to see numerous misconceptions concerning this construct and its conceptualization as well as criticism as to its role in predicting and explaining speech behaviour (cf., for instance, Cargile, Giles 1997: 195; Edwards 1999: 109; Ladegaard 2000: 229–230; Garrett 2001: 630; Soukup 2012; Taylor, Marsden 2014). The author claims that attitude research can still prove very insightful and helpful in sociolinguistic theory building, but to do so, one needs to reconceptualize attitude along the reasoned action approach on the foundations of which the theory of planned behaviour rests. The theory posits that attitude is one of the three general predictors having a sufficient explanatory and predictive power in the case of most human behaviours. The major goal of the present article is to report on a study attempting to apply the theory of planned behaviour to explain why students of English being given an alternative to choose either an English or American accent as a target model to learn opt for one and not the other. The second goal of the article is to discuss the role of language attitudes in determining students’ decisions. Part 1 of the article includes a brief theoretical introduction as well as a detailed description of two pilot studies which served to prepare the research instrument for the main investigation.

This is a note to support and expand recent work on the etymology of German Meerschweinchen, English guinea pig, and related forms with a body of dated evidence, including new first attestations for English guinea pig and Polish świnka morska.

This three-part study continues an inquiry earlier initiated in these pages into words listed in Oxford English dictionary as still without satisfactory etymologies. Loans from a variety of source languages are reviewed, accompanied by commentary on earlier lexicographical praxis as it relates to various popular registers of English.

This is the second part of a paper dealing with the concept of English as a “world” or “global language”. Here, results from two research projects conducted in Denmark are presented. They investigated the role of languages in academia and in businesses with a global perspective. Data are taken from Denmark and in part Japan. Two different narratives of English as a world language emerge.

This article is intended to explore the linguistic means of anglicization in Cuban Spanish. Thus, a corpus-driven database or glossary of this variant of Spanish has been elaborated to examine these English-induced units quantitatively and qualitatively, entailing a morpho-syntactic and semantic analysis of the anglicization process. This research study is based on two major stages: data collection and data processing of the lemmas compiled. The resulting glossary is used in this part of the study to unravel the morphological and syntactic features of the English-induced units, in particular those of gender and number. A compilation of these Cuban-Spanish units allows for a better understanding of morphological changes and lexical creativity, in keeping with the historical socioeconomic conditions of the island. The collection of colloquialisms, vulgarisms or obsolete words corroborates the diastratic and diaphasic evolution of lemmas, and unveils some distinctive word-building patterns.

Didżej and didżejować appeared in Polish due to language contact and loanword assimilation processes; the former is the English noun DJ in graphic disguise, the latter is a Polish verbal derivative that conceals the English etymon. The article focuses on discussing and exemplifying the multiple ways in which English acronyms and alphabetisms are assimilated and integrated in the Polish lexical and grammatical systems. Part 1 of the article discusses loanword adaptation processes that have been identified for English lexical loans in several European languages. The linguistic outcomes of loanword adaptation processes, which both occur during the borrowing process and follow it, serve to support an observation that intensive lexical borrowing from English is a change-provoking and development-motivating process that leads to linguistic diversity rather than linguistic homogeneity. An illustration of contact-induced linguistic diversity with corpus-driven data is preceded with a brief discussion of English abbreviations, which, in Part 2, are contrasted with their “polonized” versions that undergo formal, semantic and pragmatic changes in the recipient language.

In his miscella the author deals with the problems of scattered notes and remarks on Károly Rédei’s work Nord-ostjakischen Texte (Kazym-Dialekt) as well as with several reviews of this work and shows with which difficulties we are still confronted when dealing with all these materials. Indeed, there are still some remarks and corrections to be done on Rédei’s work which have been overlooked by all the reviewers, but besides all criticism the work is still worth reading since it is one of the most important collections of Northern-Ostyak texts.

In the following paper selected Greek words with initial zd- or h-, which could have developed from Proto-Indo-European initial Hi̭ or i̭-, are analyzed. In the first part the position of the Greek language within the Indo-European family, the Laryngeal Theory and the history of research on the development of initial glide (H)i̭- in Greek are commented on. In the main segment, divided between the two parts of the paper, the criteria of the selection of the Greek words are put forward and the selected thirteen words analyzed in the light of the development of their initial segments. In the second part, the conclusions made on the basis of the analysis are confronted with theories on scenarios of relative chronology of the sound changes. Finally, typological data is adduced to favour one of the possible scenarios of changes.

Tobacco was certainly one of the most popular drug products in Europe until the end of the 20th century. Nevertheless, our knowledge of the history of its designations is fairly often limited to general statements like, for instance, “from Spanish” (for English tobacco) or “from Turkish” (for Polish tytoń) and so on. This author aims at establishing some lexicological areas displaying various influences on the Slavic languages in that respect, as well as providing critical assessment of earlier claims and presenting his own observations concerning the Slavic designations of ‘tobacco’.

Since electronic communication became widespread, one of the typical features identified in e-language and commented on, also as an aspect of linguistic analyses, has been acronyms and abbreviated language of various kinds. It has been particularly visible in English, as this language, unlike many others, shows great flexibility with regard to such modifications, mainly due to homophony between numerous words and individual sounds as well as lack of inflectional endings, which otherwise would limit the abbreviation options. However, the current overview of a selection of social networking sites does not appear to demonstrate any striking presence of this marker of computer-mediated communication (CMC). The present analysis therefore attempts to investigate the contemporary status of online language abbreviations in English, with the aim of discovering the actual visibility and frequency of use of such items as well as identifying their most popular forms found online. In particular, the research focuses on three social networking sites, i.e. Facebook (private accounts and fanpages), YouTube, and Twitter, trying to establish which factors contribute to the preference for abbreviations: the limitation of the post length, the degree of informality and closeness to the post addressees or the anonymity of the post author. Additionally, the investigation also takes into account the nationality of the users, and notably the status of English as their first or second language, as well as their gender, on the assumption that these variables play a significant role in the selection of this aspect of online discourse.

This is a paper in two parts, both dealing with the localization of the concept of English as a “world” or “global language”. In the first part, a number of general notions like “globalization” are discussed, and a plea is made for studying the role of any language in a given context ecologically, i.e. in relationship to, and in interaction with, other languages.

Didżej and didżejować appeared in Polish due to language contact and loanword assimilation processes; the former is the English noun DJ in graphic disguise, the latter is a Polish verbal derivative that conceals the English etymon. The article focuses on discussing and exemplifying the multiple ways in which English acronyms and alphabetisms are assimilated and integrated in the Polish lexical and grammatical systems. Part 1 of the article concerns loanword adaptation processes that have been identified for English lexical loans in several European languages. The linguistic outcomes of loanword adaptation processes, which both occur during the borrowing process and follow it, serve to support an observation that intensive lexical borrowing from English is a change-provoking and development-motivating process that leads to linguistic diversity rather than linguistic homogeneity. An illustration of contact-induced linguistic diversity with corpus-driven data is preceded with a brief discussion of English abbreviations, which, in Part 2, are contrasted with their “polonized” versions that undergo formal, semantic and pragmatic changes in the recipient language.

The present paper offers an analysis of the TAM semantics of the HĨ and the HA gram(matical construction)s in Tjwao within the cognitive and grammaticalization-based model of dynamic maps and streams. The authors show that, albeit similar, the ranges of meanings of the two grams differ. The grams share the senses of experiential present perfect, definite past, stative and non-stative present. However, the senses of narrative remote past and pluperfect are typical of HĨ, while the senses of inclusive and resultative present perfect are only compatible with HA. When used as presents, HA is limited to affirmative contexts, whereas HĨ is restricted to negative contexts. The authors additionally demonstrate that the polysemy of each gram can be mapped by means of two sub-paths of the resultative path, i.e. the anterior and simultaneous paths. The two grams may therefore be located on the same stream on which HĨ occupies a more advanced position than HA, being thus a chronologically earlier construction. This grammaticalization-based entanglement of HĨ and HA is consistent with the situation found in other Khoe languages

The present article deals with the Tajik language used in modern public inscriptions (sign-boards, sign-posts, billboard advertisements, political banners, etc.) documented in about 400 photographs taken in Tajikistan by various individuals in recent years. Some sociolinguistic problems are discussed (especially in the case of multilingual inscriptions) as well as morphology, vocabulary, word-formation and syntax of the texts in question.

Sample English reduplicative compounds on the model of flim-flam and higgledy-piggledy are analyzed for the interplay of formal features (alliteration, vowel alternation, rhyme), semantics (as parts and wholes), and obscure origins. Loans, new coinages, internal realignment, register, and affect are discussed. Inadequacies in earlier lexicographical, especially etymological, treatment are remedied.

The author introduces the Slavonic material leading to the reconstruction of Common Slavonic *gornostajь/*gornostalь‘ermine, Mustela erminea’ and discusses the existing etymological explanations of the word.

The author discusses possible motivations for naming the ermine in Slavonic, adopts and further elaborates on the etymology of Common Slavonic *gornostajь/*gornostalьgiven by Černych (< Indo-European *gher- ‘warm, hot; get warm’), which eventually leads to a new, alternative solution based on the connection with the Indo-European root *erH- ‘blacken, get/be black’.

The paper deals with the word order of reflexive sě, which is an item on the boundary between a pronominal form and a discrete morpheme. In the first part of the study, we investigate the (en)clitic status of sě in eight books of the oldest complete Czech Bible translation. The analysis focuses only on sě that is dependent on a finite verb: it identifies all possible word order positions of sě in a clause and interprets them in the light of the main competing positions of Czech (en)clitics during the development of the language: 1. the postinitial position, i.e. when an (en)clitic is located after first word/phrase; 2. the contact (verb-adjacent) position, i.e. when an (en)clitic is located immediately before (preverbal position) or after (postverbal position) its syntactically or morphologically superordinate item.

In this part of the paper, the distribution of clause positions of the reflexive pronoun sě is analyzed statistically. Specifically, the impact of both stylistic factors and the length of the element in the initial position are investigated. The authors also discuss the possible influence of the word order of the Latin pretext (the Vulgate) on the Old Czech translation.

This paper examines Cicero’s use and introduction of direct speech in nine selected letters to Atticus. It shows that despite the informal traits found in the letters, Cicero is not innovative in his choice of means to introduce direct speech. The paper also notes transitional zones on the margin of the domain of direct speech and the interplay of intervening voices. In this way, it contributes to improving the knowledge of direct speech in classical Latin, which is a necessary starting point for research into its development. The analysis is divided into two parts. This part is aimed at the theoretical background, use and introduction of direct speech in the letters to Atticus.

This paper examines Cicero’s use and introduction of direct speech in nine selected letters to Atticus. It shows that despite the informal traits found in the letters, Cicero is not innovative in his choice of means to introduce direct speech. The paper also notes transitional zones on the margin of the domain of direct speech and the interplay of intervening voices. In this way, it contributes to improving the knowledge of direct speech in classical Latin, which is a necessary starting point for research into its development. The analysis is divided into two parts. This part is aimed at the examination of indirect speech, mixed quotations and the interplay between different voices present in the selected letters.

The present article deals with the Tajik language used in modern public inscriptions (sign-boards, sign-posts, billboard advertisements, political banners, etc.) documented in about 400 photographs taken in Tajikistan by various individuals in recent years. Some sociolinguistic problems are discussed (especially in the case of multilingual inscriptions) as well as morphology, vocabulary, word-formation and syntax of the texts in question.

Sample English reduplicative compounds on the model of flim-flam and higgledy-piggledy are analyzed for the interplay of formal features (alliteration, vowel alternation, rhyme), semantics (as parts and wholes), and obscure origins. Loans, new coinages, internal realignment, register, and affect are discussed. Inadequacies in earlier lexicographical, especially etymological, treatment are remedied.

The Polish origin of the Yakut word for ‘snuff’ was suggested some years ago but a closer look at this word nest reveals new and rather unclear aspects. The other word to be discussed here is that for ‘thousand’; its Russian origin is doubted by this author because of phonetic inaccuracies which can be well removed once a Polish etymon of the Yakut word is accepted.

The article deals with a developmental cline of the ego-et-nunc communicative scope in Slavic versus Germanic and Romance. The author posits a two pathway grammaticaliza­tion for the Indo-European ego-et-nunc communicative scope progressing along the axis of syntheticity and the axis of analyticity respectively. The prospective perspective (aspect) is typical of Slavic while the retrospective perspective is observed in the analytic Western European languages. Each of the two grammaticalization pathways is characterized by four possible changes as determined by particular configurations of the societal factors (synthetic complexification, synthetic simplification, analytic simplification, analytic complexification). The author places the systematic typology of Mel’nikov in a wider context of areal-typological and genealogical research.

This study aims to assess the extent of crosslinguistic influence in English as the weaker language of unbalanced bilingual children, and to compare the extent of such influence to that reported in the second language acquisition (SLA) literature. Additionally, by comparing children from different L1 backgrounds, we aim to see if typological distance impacts crosslinguistic influence. We collected elicited speech samples from 16 Polish-English and 44 French-English children who have had dual language input from birth, but whose English is weaker mostly because it is absent outside the home environment. The crosslinguistic error rates (an average of 6%) are lower for our participants than averages found in SLA literature, but still considerably high. Although French- and Polish-dominant children present comparable error profiles, the extent of crosslinguistic influence tends to be greater in the case of French-English bilinguals than for Polish-English bilinguals, which may reflect the perceived distance between the languages.

According to the results of our previous studies on written texts and spoken dialogues (Zuczkowski et al. 2014; Zuczkowski et al. 2017) it is possible to identify three main epistemic positions, each having two sides, one evidential (source of information), the other epistemic (commitment towards the truth of the propositional content): Knowing/certain, Not Knowing Whether-Believing/uncertain, Unknowing/neither certain nor uncertain. During a dialogue, speakers can assume one of three different epistemic positions, shifting from one to another in their turns or even within the same turn, and give their interlocutors a complementary one; interlocutors, on their part, can react by showing alignment or misalignment towards the others’ positioning. In this study, in order to illustrate our theoretical perspective, we present four conversational excerpts taken from different types of Italian corpora showing the relations between the epistemic positioning and the sequential structure of interactions. Our analysis suggests that, when interlocutors assume epistemic roles consistent with speakers’ expectations, the conversational outcomes are agreement and alignment; when this is not the case, disagreement and misalignment are frequent. These dynamics affect the sequential structure of the interaction as well.

This paper reports on the results of a sociopragmatic study of restaurant-owners’ public responses to negative customer reviews posted on TripAdvisor. Responses to customer complaints are typically apologetic, taking a deferential stance towards the customer. This study focuses on responses which shift away from this default position and take an explicitly oppositional stance. Drawing on Goffman’s concept of footing and informed by sociopragmatic theories of facework and relational work, I explore the discursive mechanisms and linguistic resources by which restaurant-owners manipulate the footings which underlie their responses to complaints – with a particular focus on radical reframings of the participants’ status and roles (the customer may be publicly denigrated or mocked). Such practices reflect the dynamic, fluid nature of a genre that may at first sight appear to be highly conventional in nature.

The paper describes the process of validating a reliable annotation scheme for the categories of Stance and Engagement in English and Spanish using a bilingual sample of English-Spanish journalistic texts extracted from the MULTINOT corpus (Lavid et al. 2015). The bilingual sample includes three different newspaper genres: news reports, editorials and letters to the editor. Following the generic annotation pipeline proposed by Hovy and Lavid (2010), the paper describes the different steps to validate an annotation scheme to capture the main features of Stance and Engagement and their realizations in English and Spanish. This includes the instantiation of the theoretical categories, the development of annotation guidelines and the performance of an inter-annotation agreement study on a small training corpus to measure the reliability of the proposed tags. The paper also describes the results of the annotation of a larger corpus using the validated scheme (Moratón 2015). This reveals interesting patterns of variation in the distribution of Stance and Engagement in the three newspaper genres, which can be fruitfully used for contrastive linguistic and computational purposes.

The aim of this paper is to identify and systematize the functions of clearly in academic discourse. The adverb shows a continuum of manner and modal meanings, and signals the existence of reliable evidence for claims, which makes it a useful rhetorical device in research articles. The study is based on a corpus of 80 research articles (ca. 580,000 words) representing three disciplines and three branches of science: linguistics (the humanities), sociology (social sciences) and physics (natural sciences). It shows that clearly is used to involve the reader in the process of data analysis (both manner and modal uses), to summarize the findings, make conclusions (modal uses), and to appeal to shared knowledge (discourse marker). Appeals to shared knowledge are only attested in the subcorpora of linguistics and sociology, which tend to adopt a more interactional style of writing than the natural sciences, while the other functions are found in the research articles of all three disciplines. Using White’s (2003) notion of heteroglossic (dis)engagement, clearly can be said to have dialogically contractive functions. Its presence in the text indicates the author’s wish to encourage the reader to adopt his/her perspective.

This article presents the results of a corpus-assisted discourse study into the use of the diminutive marker little in an adversarial trial. It explores the recurrent patterns and the evaluative meanings associated with the use of little, and furthermore looks at the broader interactional context in which these patterns and meanings are found. Drawing on the concepts of stance (du Bois 2007), evaluation (Hunston 1994) and semantic prosody (Louw 1993), it demonstrates how interactants in the courtroom setting lay claim to epistemic priority by stressing the relevance of their own testimony while discrediting the opponent and diminishing the importance of unwanted evidence. The analysis also shows that patterns with little are linked to politeness and mitigation, and that they soften the austerity of communication. The data seem to suggest as well that the evaluative uses of little are more common in references to the primary reality of the courtroom than in references to the out-of-the-courtroom reality, in the case of which denotative meanings prevail. Most importantly, however, the study reveals that despite the formality of courtroom interaction, analytic diminutives with little are a frequent interactional device and, further, that their polarities depend on interplay with other discourse elements as well as the interpersonal goals that the speakers are trying to achieve.

This article presents the results of a corpus-assisted discourse study into the use of the diminutive marker little in an adversarial trial. It explores the recurrent patterns and the evaluative meanings associated with the use of little, and furthermore looks at the broader interactional context in which these patterns and meanings are found. Drawing on the concepts of stance (du Bois 2007), evaluation (Hunston 1994) and semantic prosody (Louw 1993), it demonstrates how interactants in the courtroom setting lay claim to epistemic priority by stressing the relevance of their own testimony while discrediting the opponent and diminishing the importance of unwanted evidence. The analysis also shows that patterns with little are linked to politeness and mitigation, and that they soften the austerity of communication. The data seem to suggest as well that the evaluative uses of little are more common in references to the primary reality of the courtroom than in references to the out-of-the-courtroom reality, in the case of which denotative meanings prevail. Most importantly, however, the study reveals that despite the formality of courtroom interaction, analytic diminutives with little are a frequent interactional device and, further, that their polarities depend on interplay with other discourse elements as well as the interpersonal goals that the speakers are trying to achieve.

The article discusses the premises of the systemic typology of G. P. Mel’nikov in comparison with the precepts of the sociolinguistic typology of P. Trudgill. The author, in particular, looks into the correlation of linguistic patterning and societal structures as presented in the two theories, and offers a detailed synopsis of the societal factors and their valuables (external determinants) used in the respective disciplines. Detailed discussion of the societal factors as presented in the systemic and social typologies is offered. Major differences between their classifications in Mel’nikov and Trudgill are substantiated. Finally, based on the postulates of Mel’nikov’s typology, the paper dwells on the concept of internal determinant or, the communicative scope which optimizes all the levels of language system, while co-varying types of social structures with types of linguistic patterning.

A specialist in Middle Eastern languages will likely be quick to associate Pol. mamuna ‘an ape-like mythological creature’ with Ar./Pers./Tkc. majmun ‘ape’. It is possible and indeed probable that this name is an Oriental borrowing applied to an ancient native belief, but a closer inspection reveals at least several other possibilities tangled in an ethnolinguistic web of potential conflations and contaminations. This paper presents the ethnographic background and some etymological ideas, though without as yet a definite answer.

The main goal of this paper is to describe some functional and formal similarities in the expression of imperatives and hortatives in various languages which are spoken in the Sakhalin Island. The suggestion is made that such similarities might have been contact-induced language changes that resulted from two common mechanisms: structural (inflectional) borrowing and grammatical accommodation.

The article looks into such features of modern electronic texts as intersemioticity and multimedia nature. Studying these features is essentially a new stage in researching intertextual relations; hence the article first turns to non-electronic texts, presenting on their basis the theoretical grounds of the notions in question, and only then proceeds to electronic texts tracing the evolution of the traditional conception of text. Electronic texts are regarded as multimodal, i.e. resulting from the synthesis of diverse semiotic objects and joining text and media in one syntagm. In order to distinguish the most common combinations of text and media, to explore the reasons why users combine them, and to establish their percentage ratios, the authors have conducted a social and linguistic study, whose results are analyzed in the article.

The study was conducted at the University of Silesia within the group of approximately 100 children from three kindergartens and one primary school where storytelling was applied to teach German. The following paper focuses on the analysis of the applied storytelling technique and gives a detailed description of the results. Of particular importance in the case of the following study is the long-lasting effectiveness of the adopted teaching technique. The article describes how this particular teaching technique has influenced the children’s attitudes towards the target language and culture. It also affords some fresh insights into the process of teaching an FL to children.

This paper discusses the phenomenon of L(eft) D(islocation) in Arusa – a southern variety of Maasai – and, in particular, the presence of resumption in LD constructions. With respect to resumption, Arusa allows for two types of LD. In most cases, a non-resumptive type of LD is used. This variant is obligatory if a possible resumptive element refers to an argument of the verb of the matrix clause (i.e. subject, direct and indirect objects and applied objects). The resumptive type, which is significantly less frequent, appears only if the dislocate corresponds to an adjunct in the matrix clause. The pervasiveness of the non-resumptive LD stems from the ungrammaticality of overt independent pronominal arguments in most positions in Arusa. As a result, resumption cannot be viewed as a decisive feature for the classification of a construction as LD, and its lack as a sufficient reason to propose a different category. Rather, LD should be viewed as a radial category containing both constructions that match the LD prototype and structures that are more remote from the exemplar.

As compared to their purely verbal manifestations, multimodal realizations of image schematic metaphors have received far too little attention in cognitive linguistics than they would deserve. It will be argued that image schemas (Johnson 1987, Talmy 1988), since they are skeletal conceptual structure, afford an excellent source domain for metaphors that are realized verbo-visually in cartoons. The cartoons selected for this study are all by Janusz Kapusta, a Polish artist, whose works have appeared every week in the Polish magazine “Plus-Minus” for over ten years. In contrast to the gestural medium, films and music, where the relevant elements of image schematic source domains of metaphor are never fully available at once, the cartoons give a “snapshot” of a conceptual image which is ready for inspection as a single Gestalt. They are therefore a good testing ground for discussing the question of how the visual and the verbal modality interact in spatialization of abstract ideas. Providing insights into the function of multimodal metaphors and levels of their activation, the discussion contributes to the ongoing debate on the conceptual nature of metaphor and the embodiment of meaning. The results of the study are also considered in relation to the role of verbo-pictorial metaphor in structuring abstract concepts in a creative way.

The paper provides a cognitive grammar analysis of reflexivization phenomena in English and Polish. Three separate although related claims are made: (i) underlying reflexiviza­tion phenomena is the intersubjectification process which involves the so-called refer­ence point relationship; (ii) the intersubjectification process takes place in the Current Discourse Space – CDS (Langacker 2008), whereby the degree of the antecedent’s ac­cessibility for the reflexive pronoun is established; (iii) while in Polish, the antecedent’s accessibility is closely linked to the detransitivization process, in English, it is determined by the accessibility hierarchy in the sense of Kuno (1987).

This paper presents a highly contextualizing approach to the meaning pattern of in. It introduces perspectivization (or vantage point taking) as an important cognitive pragmatic mechanism that accounts for meaning variation of prepositions. In addition, contextualization is included as an important part of the methodology for sense decision. It is hoped that the proposed model can shed light on the connection between cognitive semantics and the cognitive pragmatic principle of relevance.

In this article, I want to put forward the following argument: Cognitive Linguistics – after a long hegemony of Chomskyan formalist linguistics – has offered models of language as “motivated” by general and prior cognitive abilities; as such it has been able to provide representations of a much wider range of linguistic phenomena (both grammatical and lexical); however, the “human face” of Cognitive Linguistics is that of a generic human being rather than that of actual people: members of particular social communities in which languages develop through “figuration” and “articulation”.

I would like to suggest that the cognitive perspective on language, developed for over half a century, has been challenged in an unparalleled manner by Daniel Dor (2015). He points out that competing schools of linguistics (formalists, functionalists, pragmaticists) all share Chomsky’s original assumption that linguistics is part of Cognitive Science and language is primarily a mental entity. Dor proposes to rethink the status quo in linguistics from an alternative starting point: language is a social communication technology for the instruction of imagination. I believe that this confrontation with mentalism in language study may lead, in time, to a paradigm shift. I also point out – in the context of Charles Taylor’s latest (2016) book – that Dor’s social perspective on language has its limitations too.

The paper discusses some cognitive processes that underlie emergence, development and disappearance of image (“one-shot”) metaphors. It is claimed that expressions with a primarily literal meaning can function in a particular discourse so that they become elevated to the status of rich image metaphors. The first step on the way towards metaphorization involves the emergence of metonymic expressions, which are based on the speakers’ choice of salient elements of events or situations. Two or more such metonymies can then coalesce via conceptual integration to create an image metaphor. The metaphor, in turn, can be transformed into an idiomatic expression, separated from its original non-verbal context. The discussion is illustrated with a slogan used in connection with recent social and political developments in Poland.

A specialist in Middle Eastern languages will likely be quick to associate Pol. mamuna ‘an ape-like mythological creature’ with Ar./Pers./Tkc. majmun ‘ape’. It is possible and indeed probable that this name is an Oriental borrowing applied to an ancient native belief, but a closer inspection reveals at least several other possibilities tangled in an ethnolinguistic web of potential conflations and contaminations. This paper presents the ethnographic background and some etymological ideas, though without as yet a definite answer.

Stanisław Stachowski wrote a series of articles devoted to studies on the New Persian loanwords in Ottoman-Turkish, which were published in Folia Orientalia in the 1970s and later republished in 1998 as a single volume. Since then, however, a good number of editions of new Ottoman texts have appeared, especially transcription texts dating from before Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680), which provide much new lexical material. Within this material there are many Persianisms – predictably enough where Ottoman-Turkish is concerned. This paper aims to supplement Stachowski’s work with words of Persian origin taken from pre-Meninski transcription texts. It is divided into two parts, the first including data to be added to entries already recorded by Stachowski (eight articles), the second containing data that constitute new entries (three articles). A short historical-etymological note on the words dealt with also features at the end of each entry.

Stanisław Stachowski wrote a series of articles devoted to studies on the New Persian loanwords in Ottoman-Turkish, which were published in Folia Orientalia in the 1970s and later republished in 1998 as a single volume. Since then, however, a good number of editions of new Ottoman texts have appeared, especially transcription texts dating from before Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680), which provide much new lexical material. Within this material there are many Persianisms – predictably enough where Ottoman-Turkish is concerned. This paper aims to supplement Stachowski’s work with words of Persian origin taken from pre-Meninski transcription texts. It is divided into two parts, the first including data to be added to entries already recorded by Stachowski (eight articles), the second containing data that constitute new entries (three articles). A short historical-etymological note on the words dealt with also features at the end of each entry.

Stanisław Stachowski wrote a series of articles devoted to studies on the New Persian loanwords in Ottoman-Turkish, which were published in Folia Orientalia in the 1970s and later republished in 1998 as a single volume. Since then, however, a good number of editions of new Ottoman texts have appeared, especially transcription texts dating from before Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680), which provide much new lexical material. Within this material there are many Persianisms – predictably enough where Ottoman-Turkish is concerned. This paper aims to supplement Stachowski’s work with words of Persian origin taken from pre-Meninski transcription texts. It is divided into two parts, the first including data to be added to entries already recorded by Stachowski (eight articles), the second containing data that constitute new entries (three articles). A short historical-etymological note on the words dealt with also features at the end of each entry.

Stanisław Stachowski wrote a series of articles devoted to studies on the New Persian loanwords in Ottoman-Turkish, which were published in Folia Orientalia in the 1970s and later republished in 1998 as a single volume. Since then, however, a good number of editions of new Ottoman texts have appeared, especially transcription texts dating from before Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680), which provide much new lexical material. Within this material there are many Persianisms – predictably enough where Ottoman-Turkish is concerned. This paper aims to supplement Stachowski’s work with words of Persian origin taken from pre-Meninski transcription texts. It is divided into two parts, the first including data to be added to entries already recorded by Stachowski (eight articles), the second containing data that constitute new entries (three articles). A short historical-etymological note on the words dealt with also features at the end of each entry.

Binomials in general and English binomials in particular are a frequent, complex and important linguistic as well as stylistic phenomenon.1 Compared to other linguistic phenomena, however, they are a relatively under-researched field. Therefore our aim is to provide a concise survey of English binomials, sketching their structure, function, history and the current state of scholarship, and pointing out possibilities for further research.2

The first part of this article was published in the previous issue of the journal. In Part II we move on to the etymological (9.) and the semantic structure of English binomials (10.). Very broadly speaking, we thus move from aspects that concern mainly the surface to features that lie a little deeper down. The etymological structure has to do with the use and distribution of native words and of loan-words; the semantic structure comprises synonyms, antonyms, and complementary pairs, as well as factual, stylistic, and cultural binomials. We also deal briefly with the semantic features of multinomials (11.), with the relation of translated binomials to their (especially Latin or French) source (12.), with differences between authors and texts (13.), with the sequence of elements and the factors that influence the sequence (14.), and with the question how far binomials are formulaic and how far they are flexible and can be coined on the spur of the moment (15.). A brief conclusion (16.) and references complete the article.

Difficulties in tracing the etymology of lexical isolates and loans from other languages are exemplified in the discussion of a gathering of English words previously without satisfactory explanations of origin.

Stanisław Stachowski wrote a series of articles devoted to studies on the New Persian loanwords in Ottoman-Turkish, which were published in Folia Orientalia in the 1970s and later republished in 1998 as a single volume. Since then, however, a good number of editions of new Ottoman texts have appeared, especially transcription texts dating from before Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680), which provide much new lexical material. Within this material there are many Persianisms – predictably enough where Ottoman-Turkish is concerned. This paper aims to supplement Stachowski’s work with words of Persian origin taken from pre-Meninski transcription texts. It is divided into two parts, the first including data to be added to entries already recorded by Stachowski (eight articles), the second containing data that constitute new entries (three articles). A short historical-etymological note on the words dealt with also features at the end of each entry.

Stanisław Stachowski wrote a series of articles devoted to studies on the New Persian loanwords in Ottoman-Turkish, which were published in Folia Orientalia in the 1970s and later republished in 1998 as a single volume. Since then, however, a good number of editions of new Ottoman texts have appeared, especially transcription texts dating from before Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680), which provide much new lexical material. Within this material there are many Persianisms – predictably enough where Ottoman-Turkish is concerned. This paper aims to supplement Stachowski’s work with words of Persian origin taken from pre-Meninski transcription texts. It is divided into two parts, the first including data to be added to entries already recorded by Stachowski (eight articles), the second containing data that constitute new entries (three articles). A short historical-etymological note on the words dealt with also features at the end of each entry.

This paper demonstrates that by applying Chaos Theory to the modelling of the evolution of verbal forms and verbal systems, it is possible to view classical grammaticalization paths as universal, and align this deterministic assumption with the unpredictability of concrete grammatical developments. The author argues that such an explanation is possible because traditional grammaticalization paths do not represent realistic cases of grammatical evolutions, but rather correspond to abstract and non-realistic deterministic laws which codify the order of the incorporation of new meanings to the semantic potential of a gram. Therefore, from a synchronic perspective, they can be used to represent the semantic potential of a form as a map or a state. In contrast, a realistic development emerges as a trajectory connecting such maps or states. Consequently, the cross-linguistic typological model of realistic evolutionary processes of a certain type corresponds to a state-space – it is a cluster of all possible trajectories the grams of a certain class can travel. This article – the last of the series – will formulate a chaotic model of the realistic evolution of verbal grams.

The ever more popular and global use of English in the world is an undeniable fact. One of the obvious manifestations of this process is the selection of English as an official language, typically in former post-colonial states. Its global status, however, also motivates some African and Asian countries which have never been a part of the British Commonwealth to choose this tongue as an official state language (sometimes – the only official language) too. Does this decision assume that the citizens of those states know English fluently? How is English integrated in their everyday life? The case study of Namibian newspaper articles and personal advertisements from classified pages as well as billboard texts is an attempt to offer some insights into the use of the variety of English typical of this country both in the official and private milieu in writing. The objective of the study, presented in two parts (Part 1: theoretical background and Part 2: analysis of data) is to outline the unique context of the use of English in Namibia and describe the most characteristic features of Namibian English grammar when compared to Standard British English and on the basis of the results illustrate the existence of a social dialect continuum with regard to the use of the English language to be detected in the analysed written texts.

In his article the author deals with the meaning of uč, which appears in lines 44 and 46 of the so-called “Manichaean Pothī-book” and not only means “end” but can also point to the “exterior / the beginning (of your path [= your teaching])” in that text.

Binomials in general and English binomials in particular are a frequent, complex and important linguistic as well as stylistic phenomenon.1 Compared to other linguistic phenomena, however, they are a relatively under-researched field. Therefore our aim is to provide a concise survey of English binomials, sketching their structure, function, history and the current state of scholarship, and pointing out possibilities for further research.2
In Part I we provide a preliminary definition of binomials (2.), explain the concept of multinomials (3.), discuss the functions of binomials (4.), give a brief review of research (5.), followed by a quick survey of binomials in the history of English (6.), and an example of a dense use of binomials, i.e. where several binomials are used in sequence (7.). Subsequently we discuss some formal features of binomials (8.), especially their basic structure and various variations of it (8.1.), their word classes (8.2.), the conjunctions used (8.3.), additional embellishment and strengthening, especially alliteration and rhyme (8.4.), and other morphological aspects, especially word-formation (8.5.). The second part of this article will be published in the next issue of the journal.

Difficulties in tracing the etymology of lexical isolates and loans from other languages are exemplified in the discussion of a gathering of English words previously without satisfactory explanations of origin.

Bulgarian čalga and Romanian manele “ethno-pop” or “pop-folk” are loanwords from Turkish. Besides the etymology of these words, the features of pop-folk will be described from a linguistic, historical and sociocultural point of view. It is a phenomenon rooted in the local Romani cultures, which are characterized by multilingualism and linguistic creativity. At the same time, pop-folk in the Balkans is based on a long tradition of Oriental music.

Stanisław Stachowski wrote a series of articles devoted to studies on the New Persian loanwords in Ottoman-Turkish, which were published in Folia Orientalia in the 1970s and later republished in 1998 as a single volume. Since then, however, a good number of editions of new Ottoman texts have appeared, especially transcription texts dating from before Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680), which provide much new lexical material. Within this material there are many Persianisms – predictably enough where Ottoman-Turkish is concerned. This paper aims to supplement Stachowski’s work with words of Persian origin taken from pre-Meninski transcription texts. It is divided into two parts, the first including data to be added to entries already recorded by Stachowski (eight articles), the second containing data that constitute new entries (three articles). A short historical-etymological note on the words dealt with also features at the end of each entry.

Stanisław Stachowski wrote a series of articles devoted to studies on the New Persian loanwords in Ottoman-Turkish, which were published in Folia Orientalia in the 1970s and later republished in 1998 as a single volume. Since then, however, a good number of editions of new Ottoman texts have appeared, especially transcription texts dating from before Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680), which provide much new lexical material. Within this material there are many Persianisms – predictably enough where Ottoman-Turkish is concerned. This paper aims to supplement Stachowski’s work with words of Persian origin taken from pre-Meninski transcription texts. It is divided into two parts, the first including data to be added to entries already recorded by Stachowski (eight articles), the second containing data that constitute new entries (three articles). A short historical-etymological note on the words dealt with also features at the end of each entry.

In this paper some Old Uigur words for traps are discussed. Among the words Maḥmūd al-Kāšgarī listed in his dictionary only tuzak is attested in Old Uigur. On the other hand, some other words such as kapgan, körp, sürgü, yipäk are known from Old Uigur texts, mainly from religious scriptures. An interesting feature is that different verbs are used together with the different trap terms: tuzak ur-, körp kaz-, kapgan ur-, sürgü tik-, yipäk tart-. These data give us some insight into the activities of hunters.

This paper demonstrates that by applying Chaos Theory to the modelling of the evolution of verbal forms and verbal systems, it is possible to view classical grammaticalization paths as universal, and align this deterministic assumption with the unpredictability of concrete grammatical developments. The author argues that such an explanation is possible because traditional grammaticalization paths do not represent realistic cases of grammatical evolutions, but rather correspond to abstract and non-realistic deterministic laws which codify the order of the incorporation of new meanings to the semantic potential of a gram. Therefore, from a synchronic perspective, they can be used to represent the semantic potential of a form as a map or a state. In contrast, a realistic development emerges as a trajectory connecting such maps or states. Consequently, the cross-linguistic typological model of realistic evolutionary processes of a certain type corresponds to a state-space – it is a cluster of all possible trajectories the grams of a certain class can travel. This article – the second of series of three papers – will deal with a principled application of Chaos Theory to linguistics and with a new alternative interpretation of paths postulated by Path Theory.

The ever more popular and global use of English in the world is an undeniable fact. One of the obvious manifestations of this process is the selection of English as an official language, typically in former post-colonial states. Its global status, however, also motivates some African and Asian countries which have never been a part of the British Commonwealth to choose this tongue as an official state language (sometimes – the only official language) too. Does this decision assume that the citizens of those states know English fluently? How is English integrated in their everyday life? The case study of Namibian newspaper articles and personal advertisements from classified pages as well as billboard texts is an attempt to offer some insights into the use of the variety of English typical of this country both in the official and private milieu in writing. The objective of the study, presented in two parts (Part 1: theoretical background and Part 2: analysis of data) is to outline the unique context of the use of English in Namibia and describe the most characteristic features of Namibian English grammar when compared to Standard British English and on the basis of the results illustrate the existence of a social dialect continuum with regard to the use of the English language to be detected in the analysed written texts.

This article presents an etymological case study on Pre-Greek (PG): it analyzes about 20 words starting with the letter N that have been catalogued as ‹PG› or ‹PG?› in the new Etymological dictionary of Greek (EDG), but for which alternative explanations are equally possible or more likely. The article starts by discussing the Leiden etymological dictionaries series, then discusses the EDG and the concept of PG and then analyzes the individual words. This analysis is performed by giving an overview of the most important earlier suggestions and contrasting it with the arguments used to catalogue the word as PG. In the process, several issues of Indo-European phonology (such as the phoneme inventory and sound laws) will be discussed.

Difficulties in tracing the etymology of lexical isolates and loans from other languages are exemplified in the discussion of a gathering of English words previously without satisfactory explanations of origin. In particular, recognition of the adstratum effects of the Irish language on British English over several centuries prompts a call not only for numerous revisions to entries in our standard lexicographical reference works but for a fundamental rethinking of relations between these multiply overlapping speech communities.

In the article the author deals with the meaning of the Buddhist-Uyghur term ürlüksüz nomlar in a passage of the so-called “Manichaean Poṭhī-book”. As many specific Buddhist terms ürlüksüz nomlar can be found in no other Manichaean-Uyghur texts and has to be translated in this context as “momentary elements of consciousness”.

Stanisław Stachowski wrote a series of articles devoted to studies on the New Persian loanwords in Ottoman-Turkish, which were published in Folia Orientalia in the 1970s and later republished in 1998 as a single volume. Since then, however, a good number of editions of new Ottoman texts have appeared, especially transcription texts dating from before Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680), which provide much new lexical material. Within this material there are many Persianisms – predictably enough where Ottoman-Turkish is concerned. This paper aims to supplement Stachowski’s work with words of Persian origin taken from pre-Meninski transcription texts. It is divided into two parts, the first including data to be added to entries already recorded by Stachowski (eight articles), the second containing data that constitute new entries (three articles). A short historical-etymological note on the words dealt with also features at the end of each entry.

Stanisław Stachowski wrote a series of articles devoted to studies on the New Persian loanwords in Ottoman-Turkish, which were published in Folia Orientalia in the 1970s and later republished in 1998 as a single volume. Since then, however, a good number of editions of new Ottoman texts have appeared, especially transcription texts dating from before Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680), which provide much new lexical material. Within this material there are many Persianisms – predictably enough where Ottoman-Turkish is concerned. This paper aims to supplement Stachowski’s work with words of Persian origin taken from pre-Meninski transcription texts. It is divided into two parts, the first including data to be added to entries already recorded by Stachowski (eight articles), the second containing data that constitute new entries (three articles). A short historical-etymological note on the words dealt with also features at the end of each entry.

Stanisław Stachowski wrote a series of articles devoted to studies on the New Persian loanwords in Ottoman-Turkish, which were published in Folia Orientalia in the 1970s and later republished in 1998 as a single volume. Since then, however, a good number of editions of new Ottoman texts have appeared, especially transcription texts dating from before Meninski’s Thesaurus (1680), which provide much new lexical material. Within this material there are many Persianisms – predictably enough where Ottoman-Turkish is concerned. This paper aims to supplement Stachowski’s work with words of Persian origin taken from pre-Meninski transcription texts. It is divided into two parts, the first including data to be added to entries already recorded by Stachowski (eight articles), the second containing data that constitute new entries (three articles). A short historical-etymological note on the words dealt with also features at the end of each entry.

This paper demonstrates that by applying Chaos Theory to the modeling of the evolution of verbal forms and verbal systems, it is possible to view classical grammaticalization paths as universal, and conceal this deterministic assumption with the unpredictability of concrete grammatical developments. The author argues that such an explanation is possible because traditional grammaticalization paths do not represent realistic cases of grammatical evolutions, but rather correspond to abstract and non-realistic deterministic laws which codify the order of the incorporation of new meanings to the semantic potential of a gram. Therefore, from a synchronic perspective, they can be used to represent the semantic potential of a form as a map or a state. In contrast, a realistic development emerges as a trajectory connecting such maps or states. Consequently, the cross-linguistic typological model of realistic evolutionary processes of a certain type corresponds to a state-space – it is a cluster of all possible trajectories the grams of a certain class can travel. In this article – the first of the series of three papers – the main tenants of Chaos Theory will be discussed.

This article presents an etymological case study on Pre-Greek (PG): it analyzes about 20 words starting with the letter M that have been catalogued as or in the new Etymological dictionary of Greek (EDG), but for which alternative explanations are equally possible or more likely (discussing all instances would be tantamount to rewriting the dictionary). The article briefly discusses the EDG (for an in-depth appraisal the reader is referred to part one of the article) and then analyzes the individual words. This analysis is performed by giving an overview of the most important earlier suggestions and contrasting it with the arguments used to catalogue the word as PG. In the process, several issues of Indo-European phonology (such as the phoneme inventory and sound laws) will be discussed.

The present paper discusses the etymology of three Gothic nouns: banja* ‘sore’, winja ‘pasture’, and sunja ‘truth’. Each of them has a cognate in Old Norse: ben ‘fatal wound’, vin ‘oasis’ and syn ‘refusal’. None of the West-Germanic languages preserves all three nouns. All are short, feminine jō-stems with an -n- in front of the stem suffix. The main issue discussed here is the etymology and formation of these nouns.

Although the Germanc dialects offer very ancient vocabulary, the have long been neglected from an etymological perspective. A very old word is e.g. Germ. Kladder ‘dirt, mud’. Because of its onomatopoetic nature this word shows a considerable diversification and expansion in the Germanic languages: klatt- and klāt‑ in Low German, Middle German, Upper German next to kladd‑ only in Low German. Those words ultimately go back to a Proto-Germanic substantive *klađđō f. ‘clot, lump, mud, dirt’, leading to the well-known PIE root *gleh₁‑ ‘to be greasy, to be dirty’.