Plants, thieves, treasures – magical plants in practice

Medicinal plants constitute a fairly large group in the world. Among them, there are many species that are used not only in medicine and herbal medicine, as a source of raw materials containing valuable active substances. According to the beliefs disseminated years ago, these are plants that, apart from their medicinal qualities, are also characterized by specifi c, unusual, non-medical properties. Thanks to this, they can be used in sui generis magical activities, usually contrary to generally accepted social norms (i.e. not always honest) or giving hope for a quick, but not risk-free, gaining of temporal goods. These are usually activities related to characteristic signs-rituals, and therefore of a ritual rather than moral or customary nature. About a dozen of such medicinal plants, occurring mainly in Poland, growing in nature and/or cultivated, which were considered magical at the same time, will be discussed in this paper.

Blue color and medicinal plants – a few words about indigo and more

Until the development of organic chemistry and the production of synthetic dyes in the second half of the 19th century, substances of natural origin were the only source of color compounds. These could be mineral, plant, and animal products, used in the form of raw products (e.g., crushed metals, minerals, animal fragments, or their excretions) and preparations derived from them. Among the plants we find many species that have been used as sources of coloring substances. They were valued primarily in the production of various utility or decorative fabrics and were used to dye natural fibers. Plant extracts or purified fractions of color compounds were also used as pigments in painting, in the illumination of books, and as substances that improve the look of medicines or foodstuffs. Some had medicinal significance per se. Among them, a small group of plant substances with a blue color is of special interest.

The most famous natural raw material of this group is indigo (Indigo), obtained from Indigofera tinctoria L. and its substitutes. Noteworthy is also the less known wood of the logwood (Haematoxylum campechianum L.), known as the blue tree. This work presents the history, uses, and therapeutic importance of the abovementioned raw materials and their contemporary use.

The Feverfew – an ancient remedy for modern diseases

The feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium L.), also known as the Chrysanthemum parthenium, is a perennial plant belonging to the Asteraceae family, growing mainly in gardens and open spaces, can be found growing in the regions of Southern Europe and Asia Minor. The healing effects of feverfew were known in antiquity. In folk medicine, this plant has been used to treat fever, migraine headaches, as well as rheumatoid arthritis, stomach and toothache, and insect bites. The active compounds contained in the feverfew include sesquiterpene lactones, and the most important of them – is parthenolide, which is considered to be the main ingredient determining the biological activity of extracts from this perennial. Feverfew preparations, containing parthenolide, reduce the production of prostaglandins, inhibit the release of serotonin and histamine, and antagonize the 5-HT_2A receptors, thus showing the anti-migraine effects. Moreover, feverfew extract has anti-infl ammatory properties and reduces allergy symptoms by inhibiting the secretion of histamine from mast cells. Currently, studies are being conducted on the use of parthenolide in the treatment of neuropathic pain. This type of chronic pain is caused by damage to the somatosensory nervous system, which is observed in the development of diabetes, stroke, cancer, or after mechanical injuries (e.g. as postoperative complications or after traffic accidents). In in vivo studies parthenolide showed a strong analgesic effect, moreover, its use allowed for the reduction of morphine doses in neuropathic animals. This important clinical implication raises great hopes for designing a multimodal therapy for neuropathic pain. In addition to its anti-infl ammatory and analgesic properties, parthenolide exhibits antitumor activity by inhibiting the NF-κB and STAT transcription factors and inducing the permanent activation of JNK kinase and p53 protein, thereby sensitizing neoplastic cells to radio- and chemotherapy. Interestingly, parthenolide induces apoptosis of cancer cells but has no toxic effects on normal cells. Currently, preparations from the feverfew are used in the phytotherapy of migraine headaches, however, the results of the preclinical research open up new perspectives for the use of this perennial, in particular parthenolide, in modern therapy.

Dandelion (Taraxacum) in European and Asian phytotherapy

The genus Taraxacum (family Asteraceae) belongs to the largest and most complicated apomictic complexes. So far, over 2,800 species classified in 60 sections have been described. The natural range of the genus is almost cosmopolitan, with monk seals found on every continent except Antarctica, but their distribution is very uneven. The largest centers of Taraxacum diversity are in Central Asia and Southern Europe. Species belonging to the genus Taraxacum have long been used as food. Young leaves are eaten raw in salads, and dried as an addition to teas or used as spices. Dried roots are used to prepare teas and a coffee substitute, while the flowers and infl orescences are used to produce syrups, wines and are added to beers and soft drinks. Above all, however, dandelions are valued herbal plants since ancient times, used in traditional European, Chinese and Indian medicine to treat liver diseases, kidney stones, stomach diseases, abdominal pain, diarrhea, cough, bladder diseases, gout, edema, and even cancerous. In the modern, very rich scientific literature, the medicinal properties of dandelions have been partially confirmed, but the results are often ambiguous and in some cases contradictory.

The importance of Linnaeus’ taxonomy for the progress of pharmaceutical science in the 18th century

Fundamentals of Linnaean taxonomy were established from the late 1730s and had a gradual ordering impact on all plant knowledge of the time. Pharmaceutical botany was enlivened by the following assertions, ideas or publications issued by Linnaeus: 1) the sexual system as a tool for practical identifi cation of genera; 2) the genera were newly defi ned or corrected to build a clear system; 3) botanists were encouraged to construct and study a natural system of genera which was expected to reveal similarities in pharmacological actions (as analogous to morphological similarities of allied species); 4) a critical and minimalist review of medicinal species and their therapeutical uses was published; 5) the synonymy of species was rectifi ed by selecting only good and suffi ciently descriptive polynomials; and fi nally 6) it became the new scientifi c standard to typify the name and description of a species on a proof sample, the role of which began to be played by a herbarium specimen of a plant, called a type. The practice of assigning binominal names to known or newly described species enabled botanists to place them immediately in the sexual system (by assigning a generic name, the genus was ranked in terms of fl ower structure). The increase in the number of medicinal plant species at the end of the 18th century was the result of a desire to make the knowledge complete and modern, and to add new facts about related species in a wellorganized form. Canons for the experimental and clinical study of effects of known and new medicinal plants on healthy and sick patients were being developed. The introduction of many new species into practical therapy took pharmacy by surprise, as the pharmacist had to learn to recognise medicinal plants previously unknown to pharmacy, which was not without its mistakes. Misrecognised plants that became drug ingredients could exert unintended effects in therapy, undermining the authority of physicians, hindering the evaluation of drugs and threatening to fl ood scientifi c pharmacy with a stream of erroneous knowledge. Continued practical self-education of pharmacists in the fi eld of plant taxonomy was therefore claimed.

Syrian rue (Peganum harmala L.) in Central Asian traditions and its popularity in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic: perspective of medical anthropology

Syrian rue (Peganum harmala L.) has been traditionally used in Central Asia for medical purposes, e.g. for treating skin diseases, joint pain, sore throat and cough. It is also applied as an apotropaic means – fumigation with the smoke of burning dried twigs of Syrian rue is commonly practised to ward off evil spirits, “evil eye” and other malevolent forces. According to the other explanations, it has purifying effects and kills microbes. In this article I briefl y outline early descriptions of Peganum harmala in the medical texts of scholars and physicians representing Greek- Arabic-Persian medicine, and focus on the role of this plant in people’s everyday life in Central Asia, based on my field materials from Afghanistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, and literature. In addition, I present the career of Peganum harmala in Central Asian countries during the COVID-19 pandemic, when fumigation with its smoke has been widely practised to protect against the coronavirus. Syrian rue was also used – beside several other plants – by some heads of state, who promoted local traditional medicines at time when they were failing to tackle the pandemic crisis. Applying an anthropological perspective, I pay particular attention to the wider context of these developments and analyse socio-cultural, political and economic factors that have contributed to the increased popularity of Peganum harmala. I also point out possible benefits of testing traditional herbal medicines as potential treatments for COVID-19 and other viral infections and refer to Asian traditional medical systems, especially traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), whose contribution to overcoming the pandemic has been recognised by the WHO.

Trees in the folk image of the world. Contribution to the study of folk beliefs about trees, their use in magic and healing

The subject of the article are folk beliefs concerning trees and their use in magic and medicine. The source basis for the presented descriptions, analyzes and interpretations are materials obtained during ethnographic field research in the Kielce region, which I conducted in 2010–2021, and published works. In the article I present cultural images of selected trees functioning in the minds of the inhabitants of Kielce villages. The analysis of the acquired ethnographic materials made it possible to find out how people think about trees as important elements of the cultural landscape, how they perceive them, what beliefs they connect with, and in the treatment of what ailments they use them. The phenomenon of a tree in folk culture results both from the mythical worldview, i.e. specific attitudes of rural residents towards natural phenomena, as well as from the specific features that trees have.

The most important aspect determining the place of trees in the folk image of the world is their personification, ascribing to them the mediating features of the cosmic tree and the tree of life. Hence their significant position in the mental picture of the world and rich symbolism manifested in magical and religious rituals, vegetation rituals and healing practices with the participation of trees.

Wild plants used to cure common illnesses by Lasowians (based on research by Franciszek Kotula)

Medical first aid is needed at any time, in any community of people. This is may be difficult for groups isolated because of their place of residence. The ethnographic group of Lasowians, once inhabiting the region of the Sandomierz Primeval Forest, was extremely interesting because of its origins and daily occupations. This area was comprehensively explored by participants of the so-called research camps, organised by the Regional Museum in Rzeszów during the years 1960–1970. The research was mainly initiated by the historian and specialist in regional studies Franciszek Kotula (1900–1983). Those observing the daily life of the Lasowian villages, interviewed individuals who, being of middle age, could remember the realities and various aspects of their ancestors’ daily life. The various domains investigated included treatment of common illnesses with the use of wild or cultivated plants. The related findings, in a form of research reports, today are in the holdings of the Ethnographic Museum in Rzeszów. Analysis of these research reports, by reference to a Polish herbarium, as well as The Book of Herbs by Simon Syrenius, and contemporary literature discussing medicinal plants, shows that the use of plants in rural medicine changed little over the centuries. It is also interesting to consider the origins of medical knowledge presented by those providing premedical care, the question being whether the expertise was based on their own experience and long-standing practice, or perhaps the knowledge was transferred from written sources, present in the manor houses of the nobility, commonly employing rural women. In the 1930s, the areas inhabited by Lasowians were incorporated into the newly established Central Industrial Region, which radically changed the everyday living conditions of this ethnographic group. Its traditions are cultivated by amateur folk ensembles whereas the unique artefacts of Lasowian heritage are collected in the Ethnographic Park established in Kolbuszowa.

Ethnobotany, ethnomedicine and ethnography

The article describes a selected ethnologist’s point of view on ethnobotany and ethnomedicine: 1. by what citeria are Possible assessments of the rationality and effectiveness of plant medcines in folk culture, 2. what are the folk justifications for choosing plants for specific purposes, for medicinal purposes.

Utility and symbolic meaning of medicinal plants on the Plan of the Abbey of Saint Gall (beginning of the 9th century)

The world of the Latin Middle Ages was marked by the spiritual-corporeal binomial: the real space was connected with many threads with the spiritual space. Religious symbolism and imagination played a huge role in this binomial. A particular concentration of symbolic and mystical-allegorical meanings was present in the monastic space (Latin claustrum). Monks living in monasteries were separated by a double barrier from the world: real – by walls and symbolic – internal discipline (rule). This separation was archetypal – in monasteries there was a border between the cosmos and chaos, between the earthly paradise (paradisus terrestris) and the damned world (terra damnata). In such an antithetical, terrestrial and supernatural key, the culture of the Middle Ages read various elements of monastic life, defi ned by the vectors of time and place, ranging from the symbolism of the temple as the eschatological Heavenly Jerusalem, through buildings and monastery gardens (biblical Eden), ending with the plants cultivated in them. Plants were grown in monasteries for functional (edible and medicinal) reasons, as well as for spiritual reasons (they were attributed apotropaic properties) and for aesthetic reasons (beauty was also considered a spiritual factor). Medicines were seen in medicinal plants for the body and soul. They had an important symbolic and religious meaning in the monastic life, they symbolized virtues or sins. Such an understanding of plants can be found in an important document that was created in the Carolingian era, the plan of the Benedictine abbey in Saint Gall. The abbey plan provides precise information not only about the structure of the monastery buildings, but also about medicinal plants, individual species and places of their cultivation within the monastery walls.

White mulberry (Morus alba L.) in scientific and cultural terms. From silk to paper

Sericulture dates back to ancient China. Today it is defined as a branch of agriculture dealing with the cultivation of mulberry for the purpose of silkworm farming and the production of silk. Due to the fact that the mulberry silkworm larvae eat white mulberry leaves, it is a plant inextricably linked with silkworm farming and, consequently the production of silk. Although white mulberry is mainly associated with the cultivation of mulberry silkworms, thanks to its numerous and unique properties, it is a plant that can be used in various branches of the economy, as well as a research object of interest to scientists representing various fields of science. Thanks to the content of many bioactive substances, micro- and macroelements and vitamins, it has been used in herbal medicine, pharmacology and medicine. The richness of bioactive compounds makes it also an attractive raw material for the food and cosmetic industry. At the same time, due to its high energy value, mulberry belongs to the group of energy crops. Both the unique properties of mulberry and the traditions associated with its cultivation have made it a plant appreciated not only by science, but also left its mark in culture, as it has accompanied people for centuries. It is not surprising, therefore, that mulberry was recorded in poems, folk proverbs and on painting canvases, including the most famous brush by Vincent van Gogh – “Mulberry Tree in Autumn”. On the other hand, the processing of mulberry silkworm cocoons into high-quality yarns, and ultimately into delicate but durable fabrics, had a significant impact on the development of art. Both in terms of the so-called applied arts, but also those referred to as beaux-arts. And although the definitions of art have changed throughout history – regardless of period or era – silk was invariably appreciated by artists and craftsmen. Thanks to its properties, quality and aesthetics, silk fiber offers a wide range of possibilities for use in papermaking, which is also important in the cultural context.

The use of white cabbage in Polish folk medicine

White cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) was one of the staple food plants in ancient rural communities. It was not only the main ingredient of many dishes, but even a symbol of abundance. The high availability of this plant, both fresh and pickled, throughout the year, created great opportunities to use it not only as food but also as a medicinal plant. The aim of the study was to present the medicinal uses of raw materials obtained from white cabbage in Polish folk medicine. The available studies show that traditional Polish folk medicine not only used fresh cabbage leaves, but also fermented leaves or sauerkraut juice. Sometimes the use of seed, stalks and fresh leaf juice were recommended. Unlike most medicinal plants, dried raw material was used very rarely. The most commonly used raw materials were fresh or lacto-fermented without prior preparation, rarely before use they were crushed, roasted, made into infusions, boiled or soaked in vinegar. It was believed that cabbage provides health and strengthens the body, and children who eat cabbage grow quickly. For medicinal purposes, this plant was used for numerous ailments and parasites of the digestive tract: abdominal pain, constipation, stomach and liver diseases, gastric and duodenal ulcers, and hemorrhoids. It has also been used in dermatological problems and as an analgesic, e.g. for headaches and rheumatic pains. The properties of cabbage were also used in the treatment of female ailments related to pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding. The collected information indicates that white cabbage has been used in folk medicine in many ways, and its various applications should not escape the attention of modern medicine.

Herbal medicines in noble purchase registers, prescriptions and in the medical handbooks in the 18th century

“Pharmacy expenses”, prescriptions, herbariums and medical handbooks are important sources for research on the history of medicine and pharmacy. They give an idea of both the level of pharmacy and court health care, as well as cultural trends in the field of health care, which were adhered to by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth’s society, and which were largely based on plant products. However, these sources are often fragmented, undated and anonymous, scattered in various collections, which we are not able to attribute to specific persons. It is also worth paying attention to the herbariums and pharmacopoeia, printed in mass since the mid-17th century, which are a kind of guide for pharmacists and medics who prepared drugs and prescribed medications to their patients. In the court’s libraries we can find medical handbooks that contained easy-to-prepare recipes, usually based on popular herbs found in the country, and served as first aid pharmaceuticals. Although the phytotherapeutic knowledge of this period was still based on the works of ancient authors, it was supplemented by the information about treatment possibilities of the new raw materials of herbal and mineral origin, which was caused by Europe’s opening to new continents and wide trade exchange with Asia, Africa and the Americas.

Is folk herbalism truly folk? Exploring 19th- and 20thcentury debates on the roots of phytotherapy

The question of the direction of information fl ow related to herbal treatment has been a topic of interest for researchers for centuries. However, “infl uenceology,” which involves identifying mutual relationships and dependencies, can be misleading, especially when seeking one-way solutions as a desirable form of response to issues related to broadly defi ned cultural phenomena. The term “infl uence-ology” was coined by literary scholars criticizing the positivist methodology derived from evolutionism. This methodology focused on fi nding all possible infl uences between literary works, resulting in often unwarranted and even ridiculous conclusions, and above all, leading to the squandering of what is the essence of literature. It seems that an ethnologist tracing infl uence in the context of herbal medicine loses sight of what is the essence of folk culture. The question “Is folk herbalism folk?” assumes a historical and source nature and contains an evolutionary desire to determine a one-way infl uence. Although poorly posed, it opens up the fi eld for presenting arguments that the parties used in the discussion. These considerations are the subject of this article.

Sources of knowledge for women taking care of the household medicine cabinets at the manors of Polish nobility: Slavic or Mediterranean traditions?

In the 19th century, the medicine cabinets at the manors of Polish nobility became a legitimate presence in the Polish provinces: defi ned in encyclopaedias and dictionaries and included in the laws on pharmacies. Their caretakers (“panny apteczkowe”) obtained their knowledge from home silva rerum, herbal books or their copies. The women taking care of the household medicine cabinets grew herbs themselves or bought them from rural herbalists with whom they exchanged information about the healing effect.

It remains an open question whether the knowledge of medicinal plants considered folk belongs to our Slavic tradition or to the Greco-Latin civilisation.

The healing plants of the Polish-Lituanian Commonwealth in the works of Jean-Emmanuel Gilibert (1741–1814) – a few reflections on phytotherapy in Exercitia Phytologica

J.-E. Gilibert spent eight years (1775–1783), in the Polish-Lituanian Commonwealth. In Grodno, he created a medical school and the first natural history cabinet, botanical gardens in Horodnica and Vilnius, he was a professor of botany, pharmacy and natural history in Vilnius (1781). Supporter of the classification system of Carl Linnaeus, Gilibert was the author of the first of Lithuanian flora Flora Lituanica Inchoata and some others publications dedicated to Lithuanian plants. Gilibert was not only a taxonomist and florist but also the author of a biogeographic (comparison of Lithuanian and Lyon vegetation) or ecological concepts (disparition and the appearance of species or the concept of the primary forest). In the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth he was also interested with diseases and organization of healthcare. In 1790 he published in Lyon Exercita Phytologica. J.-E. Gilibert gave a list of 40 species of Lithuanian medicinal plants. The information provided by J.-E. Gilibert is undoubtedly an interesting contribution for the history of medicinal plants in the first Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The article presents and analyzes the list of given species.

Evolution of the concept of quality and methods of obtaining essential oils; the importance in the history of medical science of selected essential oils from the Mediterranean

Many scientific works indicate that essential oils are used in the treatment of many diseases and are of particular importance in aromatherapy, given the science of the existing balance between the mental, neurological, endocrine and immune systems. The paper will take into account the evolution of the methods of obtaining essential oils, methods of testing their quality and use. In addition, selected essential oils produced and used in the Mediterranean area will be described.

The oldest preserved botanico-medical lexicon in the Polish lands. A report from editorial and philological works. Editorial questions and scientifical problems

This article presents the main issues related to the development and critical edition of the oldest manuscript entirely devoted to the subject of botanical, zoological and pharmaceutical and originating from Poland. Such an issue requires a more detailed discussion and precise presentation to a broad audience not only due to the specific and atypical nature of the research papers, differences in the development of common-use Latin texts and literary texts but also due to its importance for other fields of science: the history of pharmacy and medicine. The article comprises the initial status quaestionis over the manuscript number ms225 – the opus of Jan Stanko, dated 1472, stored away in the Archives of the Krakow Cathedral Chapter. The manuscript has not yet been the subject of a detailed study; some crucial remarks on its subject are included in Józef Rostafiński’s Średniowieczna Historya Naturalna w Polsce, published in Cracow in 1900. By profession, Rostafiński was a botanist, thus his coverage vastly differs from the method in which the text would be analysed by a classical philologist and a book publisher. The article provides preliminary findings on the history of the manuscript, its characteristics and peculiarities, and also raises issues related to the methodology of codicological research facilitating the understanding of the text, including the complexity of the lexis used in the text. Parles the specifics of research on ancient texts that are not Piotr Wolski literary works. The final part of the article illustrates the main objectives: source and linguistic research, the principles of editorial work, as well as further research perspectives.

Plants, thieves, treasures – magical plants in practice

Medicinal plants constitute a fairly large group in the world. Among them, there are many species that are used not only in medicine and herbal medicine, as a source of raw materials containing valuable active substances. According to the beliefs disseminated years ago, these are plants that, apart from their medicinal qualities, are also characterized by specifi c, unusual, non-medical properties. Thanks to this, they can be used in sui generis magical activities, usually contrary to generally accepted social norms (i.e. not always honest) or giving hope for a quick, but not risk-free, gaining of temporal goods. These are usually activities related to characteristic signs-rituals, and therefore of a ritual rather than moral or customary nature. About a dozen of such medicinal plants, occurring mainly in Poland, growing in nature and/or cultivated, which were considered magical at the same time, will be discussed in this paper.

Blue color and medicinal plants – a few words about indigo and more

Until the development of organic chemistry and the production of synthetic dyes in the second half of the 19th century, substances of natural origin were the only source of color compounds. These could be mineral, plant, and animal products, used in the form of raw products (e.g., crushed metals, minerals, animal fragments, or their excretions) and preparations derived from them. Among the plants we find many species that have been used as sources of coloring substances. They were valued primarily in the production of various utility or decorative fabrics and were used to dye natural fibers. Plant extracts or purified fractions of color compounds were also used as pigments in painting, in the illumination of books, and as substances that improve the look of medicines or foodstuffs. Some had medicinal significance per se. Among them, a small group of plant substances with a blue color is of special interest.

The most famous natural raw material of this group is indigo (Indigo), obtained from Indigofera tinctoria L. and its substitutes. Noteworthy is also the less known wood of the logwood (Haematoxylum campechianum L.), known as the blue tree. This work presents the history, uses, and therapeutic importance of the abovementioned raw materials and their contemporary use.

The Feverfew – an ancient remedy for modern diseases

The feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium L.), also known as the Chrysanthemum parthenium, is a perennial plant belonging to the Asteraceae family, growing mainly in gardens and open spaces, can be found growing in the regions of Southern Europe and Asia Minor. The healing effects of feverfew were known in antiquity. In folk medicine, this plant has been used to treat fever, migraine headaches, as well as rheumatoid arthritis, stomach and toothache, and insect bites. The active compounds contained in the feverfew include sesquiterpene lactones, and the most important of them – is parthenolide, which is considered to be the main ingredient determining the biological activity of extracts from this perennial. Feverfew preparations, containing parthenolide, reduce the production of prostaglandins, inhibit the release of serotonin and histamine, and antagonize the 5-HT_2A receptors, thus showing the anti-migraine effects. Moreover, feverfew extract has anti-infl ammatory properties and reduces allergy symptoms by inhibiting the secretion of histamine from mast cells. Currently, studies are being conducted on the use of parthenolide in the treatment of neuropathic pain. This type of chronic pain is caused by damage to the somatosensory nervous system, which is observed in the development of diabetes, stroke, cancer, or after mechanical injuries (e.g. as postoperative complications or after traffic accidents). In in vivo studies parthenolide showed a strong analgesic effect, moreover, its use allowed for the reduction of morphine doses in neuropathic animals. This important clinical implication raises great hopes for designing a multimodal therapy for neuropathic pain. In addition to its anti-infl ammatory and analgesic properties, parthenolide exhibits antitumor activity by inhibiting the NF-κB and STAT transcription factors and inducing the permanent activation of JNK kinase and p53 protein, thereby sensitizing neoplastic cells to radio- and chemotherapy. Interestingly, parthenolide induces apoptosis of cancer cells but has no toxic effects on normal cells. Currently, preparations from the feverfew are used in the phytotherapy of migraine headaches, however, the results of the preclinical research open up new perspectives for the use of this perennial, in particular parthenolide, in modern therapy.

Dandelion (Taraxacum) in European and Asian phytotherapy

The genus Taraxacum (family Asteraceae) belongs to the largest and most complicated apomictic complexes. So far, over 2,800 species classified in 60 sections have been described. The natural range of the genus is almost cosmopolitan, with monk seals found on every continent except Antarctica, but their distribution is very uneven. The largest centers of Taraxacum diversity are in Central Asia and Southern Europe. Species belonging to the genus Taraxacum have long been used as food. Young leaves are eaten raw in salads, and dried as an addition to teas or used as spices. Dried roots are used to prepare teas and a coffee substitute, while the flowers and infl orescences are used to produce syrups, wines and are added to beers and soft drinks. Above all, however, dandelions are valued herbal plants since ancient times, used in traditional European, Chinese and Indian medicine to treat liver diseases, kidney stones, stomach diseases, abdominal pain, diarrhea, cough, bladder diseases, gout, edema, and even cancerous. In the modern, very rich scientific literature, the medicinal properties of dandelions have been partially confirmed, but the results are often ambiguous and in some cases contradictory.

The importance of Linnaeus’ taxonomy for the progress of pharmaceutical science in the 18th century

Fundamentals of Linnaean taxonomy were established from the late 1730s and had a gradual ordering impact on all plant knowledge of the time. Pharmaceutical botany was enlivened by the following assertions, ideas or publications issued by Linnaeus: 1) the sexual system as a tool for practical identifi cation of genera; 2) the genera were newly defi ned or corrected to build a clear system; 3) botanists were encouraged to construct and study a natural system of genera which was expected to reveal similarities in pharmacological actions (as analogous to morphological similarities of allied species); 4) a critical and minimalist review of medicinal species and their therapeutical uses was published; 5) the synonymy of species was rectifi ed by selecting only good and suffi ciently descriptive polynomials; and fi nally 6) it became the new scientifi c standard to typify the name and description of a species on a proof sample, the role of which began to be played by a herbarium specimen of a plant, called a type. The practice of assigning binominal names to known or newly described species enabled botanists to place them immediately in the sexual system (by assigning a generic name, the genus was ranked in terms of fl ower structure). The increase in the number of medicinal plant species at the end of the 18th century was the result of a desire to make the knowledge complete and modern, and to add new facts about related species in a wellorganized form. Canons for the experimental and clinical study of effects of known and new medicinal plants on healthy and sick patients were being developed. The introduction of many new species into practical therapy took pharmacy by surprise, as the pharmacist had to learn to recognise medicinal plants previously unknown to pharmacy, which was not without its mistakes. Misrecognised plants that became drug ingredients could exert unintended effects in therapy, undermining the authority of physicians, hindering the evaluation of drugs and threatening to fl ood scientifi c pharmacy with a stream of erroneous knowledge. Continued practical self-education of pharmacists in the fi eld of plant taxonomy was therefore claimed.

Syrian rue (Peganum harmala L.) in Central Asian traditions and its popularity in the time of the COVID-19 pandemic: perspective of medical anthropology

Syrian rue (Peganum harmala L.) has been traditionally used in Central Asia for medical purposes, e.g. for treating skin diseases, joint pain, sore throat and cough. It is also applied as an apotropaic means – fumigation with the smoke of burning dried twigs of Syrian rue is commonly practised to ward off evil spirits, “evil eye” and other malevolent forces. According to the other explanations, it has purifying effects and kills microbes. In this article I briefl y outline early descriptions of Peganum harmala in the medical texts of scholars and physicians representing Greek- Arabic-Persian medicine, and focus on the role of this plant in people’s everyday life in Central Asia, based on my field materials from Afghanistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, and literature. In addition, I present the career of Peganum harmala in Central Asian countries during the COVID-19 pandemic, when fumigation with its smoke has been widely practised to protect against the coronavirus. Syrian rue was also used – beside several other plants – by some heads of state, who promoted local traditional medicines at time when they were failing to tackle the pandemic crisis. Applying an anthropological perspective, I pay particular attention to the wider context of these developments and analyse socio-cultural, political and economic factors that have contributed to the increased popularity of Peganum harmala. I also point out possible benefits of testing traditional herbal medicines as potential treatments for COVID-19 and other viral infections and refer to Asian traditional medical systems, especially traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), whose contribution to overcoming the pandemic has been recognised by the WHO.

Trees in the folk image of the world. Contribution to the study of folk beliefs about trees, their use in magic and healing

The subject of the article are folk beliefs concerning trees and their use in magic and medicine. The source basis for the presented descriptions, analyzes and interpretations are materials obtained during ethnographic field research in the Kielce region, which I conducted in 2010–2021, and published works. In the article I present cultural images of selected trees functioning in the minds of the inhabitants of Kielce villages. The analysis of the acquired ethnographic materials made it possible to find out how people think about trees as important elements of the cultural landscape, how they perceive them, what beliefs they connect with, and in the treatment of what ailments they use them. The phenomenon of a tree in folk culture results both from the mythical worldview, i.e. specific attitudes of rural residents towards natural phenomena, as well as from the specific features that trees have.

The most important aspect determining the place of trees in the folk image of the world is their personification, ascribing to them the mediating features of the cosmic tree and the tree of life. Hence their significant position in the mental picture of the world and rich symbolism manifested in magical and religious rituals, vegetation rituals and healing practices with the participation of trees.

Wild plants used to cure common illnesses by Lasowians (based on research by Franciszek Kotula)

Medical first aid is needed at any time, in any community of people. This is may be difficult for groups isolated because of their place of residence. The ethnographic group of Lasowians, once inhabiting the region of the Sandomierz Primeval Forest, was extremely interesting because of its origins and daily occupations. This area was comprehensively explored by participants of the so-called research camps, organised by the Regional Museum in Rzeszów during the years 1960–1970. The research was mainly initiated by the historian and specialist in regional studies Franciszek Kotula (1900–1983). Those observing the daily life of the Lasowian villages, interviewed individuals who, being of middle age, could remember the realities and various aspects of their ancestors’ daily life. The various domains investigated included treatment of common illnesses with the use of wild or cultivated plants. The related findings, in a form of research reports, today are in the holdings of the Ethnographic Museum in Rzeszów. Analysis of these research reports, by reference to a Polish herbarium, as well as The Book of Herbs by Simon Syrenius, and contemporary literature discussing medicinal plants, shows that the use of plants in rural medicine changed little over the centuries. It is also interesting to consider the origins of medical knowledge presented by those providing premedical care, the question being whether the expertise was based on their own experience and long-standing practice, or perhaps the knowledge was transferred from written sources, present in the manor houses of the nobility, commonly employing rural women. In the 1930s, the areas inhabited by Lasowians were incorporated into the newly established Central Industrial Region, which radically changed the everyday living conditions of this ethnographic group. Its traditions are cultivated by amateur folk ensembles whereas the unique artefacts of Lasowian heritage are collected in the Ethnographic Park established in Kolbuszowa.

Ethnobotany, ethnomedicine and ethnography

The article describes a selected ethnologist’s point of view on ethnobotany and ethnomedicine: 1. by what citeria are Possible assessments of the rationality and effectiveness of plant medcines in folk culture, 2. what are the folk justifications for choosing plants for specific purposes, for medicinal purposes.

Utility and symbolic meaning of medicinal plants on the Plan of the Abbey of Saint Gall (beginning of the 9th century)

The world of the Latin Middle Ages was marked by the spiritual-corporeal binomial: the real space was connected with many threads with the spiritual space. Religious symbolism and imagination played a huge role in this binomial. A particular concentration of symbolic and mystical-allegorical meanings was present in the monastic space (Latin claustrum). Monks living in monasteries were separated by a double barrier from the world: real – by walls and symbolic – internal discipline (rule). This separation was archetypal – in monasteries there was a border between the cosmos and chaos, between the earthly paradise (paradisus terrestris) and the damned world (terra damnata). In such an antithetical, terrestrial and supernatural key, the culture of the Middle Ages read various elements of monastic life, defi ned by the vectors of time and place, ranging from the symbolism of the temple as the eschatological Heavenly Jerusalem, through buildings and monastery gardens (biblical Eden), ending with the plants cultivated in them. Plants were grown in monasteries for functional (edible and medicinal) reasons, as well as for spiritual reasons (they were attributed apotropaic properties) and for aesthetic reasons (beauty was also considered a spiritual factor). Medicines were seen in medicinal plants for the body and soul. They had an important symbolic and religious meaning in the monastic life, they symbolized virtues or sins. Such an understanding of plants can be found in an important document that was created in the Carolingian era, the plan of the Benedictine abbey in Saint Gall. The abbey plan provides precise information not only about the structure of the monastery buildings, but also about medicinal plants, individual species and places of their cultivation within the monastery walls.

White mulberry (Morus alba L.) in scientific and cultural terms. From silk to paper

Sericulture dates back to ancient China. Today it is defined as a branch of agriculture dealing with the cultivation of mulberry for the purpose of silkworm farming and the production of silk. Due to the fact that the mulberry silkworm larvae eat white mulberry leaves, it is a plant inextricably linked with silkworm farming and, consequently the production of silk. Although white mulberry is mainly associated with the cultivation of mulberry silkworms, thanks to its numerous and unique properties, it is a plant that can be used in various branches of the economy, as well as a research object of interest to scientists representing various fields of science. Thanks to the content of many bioactive substances, micro- and macroelements and vitamins, it has been used in herbal medicine, pharmacology and medicine. The richness of bioactive compounds makes it also an attractive raw material for the food and cosmetic industry. At the same time, due to its high energy value, mulberry belongs to the group of energy crops. Both the unique properties of mulberry and the traditions associated with its cultivation have made it a plant appreciated not only by science, but also left its mark in culture, as it has accompanied people for centuries. It is not surprising, therefore, that mulberry was recorded in poems, folk proverbs and on painting canvases, including the most famous brush by Vincent van Gogh – “Mulberry Tree in Autumn”. On the other hand, the processing of mulberry silkworm cocoons into high-quality yarns, and ultimately into delicate but durable fabrics, had a significant impact on the development of art. Both in terms of the so-called applied arts, but also those referred to as beaux-arts. And although the definitions of art have changed throughout history – regardless of period or era – silk was invariably appreciated by artists and craftsmen. Thanks to its properties, quality and aesthetics, silk fiber offers a wide range of possibilities for use in papermaking, which is also important in the cultural context.

The use of white cabbage in Polish folk medicine

White cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) was one of the staple food plants in ancient rural communities. It was not only the main ingredient of many dishes, but even a symbol of abundance. The high availability of this plant, both fresh and pickled, throughout the year, created great opportunities to use it not only as food but also as a medicinal plant. The aim of the study was to present the medicinal uses of raw materials obtained from white cabbage in Polish folk medicine. The available studies show that traditional Polish folk medicine not only used fresh cabbage leaves, but also fermented leaves or sauerkraut juice. Sometimes the use of seed, stalks and fresh leaf juice were recommended. Unlike most medicinal plants, dried raw material was used very rarely. The most commonly used raw materials were fresh or lacto-fermented without prior preparation, rarely before use they were crushed, roasted, made into infusions, boiled or soaked in vinegar. It was believed that cabbage provides health and strengthens the body, and children who eat cabbage grow quickly. For medicinal purposes, this plant was used for numerous ailments and parasites of the digestive tract: abdominal pain, constipation, stomach and liver diseases, gastric and duodenal ulcers, and hemorrhoids. It has also been used in dermatological problems and as an analgesic, e.g. for headaches and rheumatic pains. The properties of cabbage were also used in the treatment of female ailments related to pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding. The collected information indicates that white cabbage has been used in folk medicine in many ways, and its various applications should not escape the attention of modern medicine.

Herbal medicines in noble purchase registers, prescriptions and in the medical handbooks in the 18th century

“Pharmacy expenses”, prescriptions, herbariums and medical handbooks are important sources for research on the history of medicine and pharmacy. They give an idea of both the level of pharmacy and court health care, as well as cultural trends in the field of health care, which were adhered to by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth’s society, and which were largely based on plant products. However, these sources are often fragmented, undated and anonymous, scattered in various collections, which we are not able to attribute to specific persons. It is also worth paying attention to the herbariums and pharmacopoeia, printed in mass since the mid-17th century, which are a kind of guide for pharmacists and medics who prepared drugs and prescribed medications to their patients. In the court’s libraries we can find medical handbooks that contained easy-to-prepare recipes, usually based on popular herbs found in the country, and served as first aid pharmaceuticals. Although the phytotherapeutic knowledge of this period was still based on the works of ancient authors, it was supplemented by the information about treatment possibilities of the new raw materials of herbal and mineral origin, which was caused by Europe’s opening to new continents and wide trade exchange with Asia, Africa and the Americas.

Is folk herbalism truly folk? Exploring 19th- and 20thcentury debates on the roots of phytotherapy

The question of the direction of information fl ow related to herbal treatment has been a topic of interest for researchers for centuries. However, “infl uenceology,” which involves identifying mutual relationships and dependencies, can be misleading, especially when seeking one-way solutions as a desirable form of response to issues related to broadly defi ned cultural phenomena. The term “infl uence-ology” was coined by literary scholars criticizing the positivist methodology derived from evolutionism. This methodology focused on fi nding all possible infl uences between literary works, resulting in often unwarranted and even ridiculous conclusions, and above all, leading to the squandering of what is the essence of literature. It seems that an ethnologist tracing infl uence in the context of herbal medicine loses sight of what is the essence of folk culture. The question “Is folk herbalism folk?” assumes a historical and source nature and contains an evolutionary desire to determine a one-way infl uence. Although poorly posed, it opens up the fi eld for presenting arguments that the parties used in the discussion. These considerations are the subject of this article.

Sources of knowledge for women taking care of the household medicine cabinets at the manors of Polish nobility: Slavic or Mediterranean traditions?

In the 19th century, the medicine cabinets at the manors of Polish nobility became a legitimate presence in the Polish provinces: defi ned in encyclopaedias and dictionaries and included in the laws on pharmacies. Their caretakers (“panny apteczkowe”) obtained their knowledge from home silva rerum, herbal books or their copies. The women taking care of the household medicine cabinets grew herbs themselves or bought them from rural herbalists with whom they exchanged information about the healing effect.

It remains an open question whether the knowledge of medicinal plants considered folk belongs to our Slavic tradition or to the Greco-Latin civilisation.

The healing plants of the Polish-Lituanian Commonwealth in the works of Jean-Emmanuel Gilibert (1741–1814) – a few reflections on phytotherapy in Exercitia Phytologica

J.-E. Gilibert spent eight years (1775–1783), in the Polish-Lituanian Commonwealth. In Grodno, he created a medical school and the first natural history cabinet, botanical gardens in Horodnica and Vilnius, he was a professor of botany, pharmacy and natural history in Vilnius (1781). Supporter of the classification system of Carl Linnaeus, Gilibert was the author of the first of Lithuanian flora Flora Lituanica Inchoata and some others publications dedicated to Lithuanian plants. Gilibert was not only a taxonomist and florist but also the author of a biogeographic (comparison of Lithuanian and Lyon vegetation) or ecological concepts (disparition and the appearance of species or the concept of the primary forest). In the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth he was also interested with diseases and organization of healthcare. In 1790 he published in Lyon Exercita Phytologica. J.-E. Gilibert gave a list of 40 species of Lithuanian medicinal plants. The information provided by J.-E. Gilibert is undoubtedly an interesting contribution for the history of medicinal plants in the first Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The article presents and analyzes the list of given species.

Evolution of the concept of quality and methods of obtaining essential oils; the importance in the history of medical science of selected essential oils from the Mediterranean

Many scientific works indicate that essential oils are used in the treatment of many diseases and are of particular importance in aromatherapy, given the science of the existing balance between the mental, neurological, endocrine and immune systems. The paper will take into account the evolution of the methods of obtaining essential oils, methods of testing their quality and use. In addition, selected essential oils produced and used in the Mediterranean area will be described.

The oldest preserved botanico-medical lexicon in the Polish lands. A report from editorial and philological works. Editorial questions and scientifical problems

This article presents the main issues related to the development and critical edition of the oldest manuscript entirely devoted to the subject of botanical, zoological and pharmaceutical and originating from Poland. Such an issue requires a more detailed discussion and precise presentation to a broad audience not only due to the specific and atypical nature of the research papers, differences in the development of common-use Latin texts and literary texts but also due to its importance for other fields of science: the history of pharmacy and medicine. The article comprises the initial status quaestionis over the manuscript number ms225 – the opus of Jan Stanko, dated 1472, stored away in the Archives of the Krakow Cathedral Chapter. The manuscript has not yet been the subject of a detailed study; some crucial remarks on its subject are included in Józef Rostafiński’s Średniowieczna Historya Naturalna w Polsce, published in Cracow in 1900. By profession, Rostafiński was a botanist, thus his coverage vastly differs from the method in which the text would be analysed by a classical philologist and a book publisher. The article provides preliminary findings on the history of the manuscript, its characteristics and peculiarities, and also raises issues related to the methodology of codicological research facilitating the understanding of the text, including the complexity of the lexis used in the text. Parles the specifics of research on ancient texts that are not Piotr Wolski literary works. The final part of the article illustrates the main objectives: source and linguistic research, the principles of editorial work, as well as further research perspectives.