Parental Burnout: An Introduction to Theory and Research

The aim of the article is to present the concept of parental burnout, which has recently become a topic of interest for researchers. In the article, we review the theoretical concept of pa-rental burnout, present the questionnaires to measure it as well as the research results indicating risk factors and consequences of parental burnout, and the first studies on the effectiveness of psychological interventions to reduce it. This article presents information in a concise, simple and understandable way, providing readers with a quick overview of the theory of parental burnout and the latest research on this phenomenon.

Secondary Adaptation of Parents after the Loss of a Child and Other Condition Statuses of Mourning

The article is devoted to the characteristics of a course of the psychological crisis caused by a critical event, which is the death of a child. The author of the work refers to the cyclical-phase model of developmental changes, which is well-known in the developmental psychology, and the Dual Process Model of Coping with Bereavement (DPM) of Margaret Stroebe, Henk Schut and Catrin Finkenauer (1999, 2001, 2010, 2013, 2015). What parents experience after the loss of a child is not an identical and parallel process. The course of mourning in parents is not the same. Rather, it is the interweaving of different states of mourning, sometimes with a regression to previous states. The result is a different mental condition of the mother and the father as a consequence of dealing more or less successfully with the loss of a child. The paper, based on theoretical and empirical analyses, proposes an original model of four psychological statuses of parents after the loss of a child. It takes into account the differentiation of the mental condition of parents in connection with the possibility of adequate psychological help. The bereavement status model (MSK) takes into consideration the statuses of secondary adaptation, unfinished mourning, complex persistent bereavement disorder, and the status of possible post-traumatic growth. A hypothesis worthy of empirical verification has been formulated that in assessing the mental condition of parents after the loss of a child, it is worth proposing a specific diagnostic package containing information on the life situation of the family; the time that has passed since the death of a child; the sex of the parent; intensification of feelings of loneliness, availability of social support and its perception by parents, and the assessment of coping strategies for everyday stress. It remains an open question, what are the direct and indirect relationships between these variables and whether their differentiation proves the legitimacy of distinguishing certain conditioning statuses of mourning in parents after the loss of a child. This is currently the subject of an empirical research testing out the MSK model.

Family Resilience – Theoretical and Practical Aspects

Since 1930, there has been a shift from an interest only in the resilience of the individual to analyzing it in relation to the family as well. Family resilience is a process of positive adaptation of the entire family and its members, and effective coping with life’s adversities (Luthar et al., 2000). In addition to coping with the demands, family resilience enables development in the face of serious life challenges (Walsh, 2006, 2016). Using the key processes of resilience, a family facing difficulties can emerge stronger and more resourceful in the face of future challenges. Froma Walsh (2013) distinguishes three overarching domains of family resilience: the belief system, the organizational patterns of family life, and the communication and problem-solving process. Research on the post-traumatic growth indicates that a crisis can be a serious warning that increases family’s attention to the core values and important life issues; an opportunity to reassess life priorities that initiates the allocation of more time and attention to meaningful relationships (Tedeschi, Calhoun, 2004). The article presents the definitions and the history of the concept of family resilience. The Walsh model of family resilience is also presented and the practical implications of the model are discussed.

Transition to Fatherhood of Young Adults during the COVID-19 Pandemic

For the last several decades, psychologists have been paying attention to the changes in the Polish family model and the transformation of the father’s role within it. These are the processes that were also significantly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. The objective of the research was to understand how the Polish young men awaiting the birth of their first child experience fatherhood in this time of crisis. Seven semi-structured interviews were conducted with men aged 26–35. Their transcripts were subject to Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). The results showed that the pandemic took away the opportunity to act in areas that were previously available to fathers from the participants. At the same time, the pandemic gave them new areas where they could fulfil themselves as fathers. Despite the limited access to prenatal care services, participants got a chance to be more present in their unborn child’s life. Moreover, they got a chance to be more active at the stage of waiting for their birth.

The Importance of Suppressing the Expression of Fear, Sadness and Anger for the Self-esteem of Young Mothers and Their Satisfaction with Life

Suppressing negative emotions (anger, fear, sadness) can lead to an increase in emotional tension. Unexpressed emotions contribute to the deterioration of health and may also contribute to the emergence of psychosomatic disorders and certain diseases, such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, and cancer. Research shows that depressive emotionality is associated with lower self-esteem while lowering life quality and life satisfaction. The aim of the study was to analyze whether suppressing negative emotions is related to the level of self-esteem amongst young mothers and their satisfaction with life, as well as to identify mediators that determine the quality of this relationship. 340 young mothers (mean age 30.09) were examined. To conduct the research the Emotional Control Scale – CECS in its Polish adaptation of Zygfryd Juczyński, the Life Satisfaction Scale by Zygfryd Juczyński and the SES Self-esteem Scale adapted by Mariola Łaguna, Kinga Lachowicz-Tabaczek and Irena Dzwonkowska were used. The analyses confirmed the existence of significant relations between the level of suppressing negative emotions (sadness and anxiety) and self-esteem as well as life satisfaction. It also turned out that the level of self-esteem is an important mediator in the relation between the suppression of sadness and anxiety by young mothers and their satisfaction with life.

Parents in the Face of the Climate Crisis

Children and adolescents are the groups particularly vulnerable to the consequences of the climate crisis. Global warming, extreme weather phenomena, and progressive environmental degradation have an adverse effect on their development. It is up to the adults to make decisions and actions allowing for mitigating the consequences of climate change, opting for an environmentally friendly household management, offering protection and support to the children, as well as explaining the situation to them and shaping their attitudes. That is why the presented research focuses precisely on parents, the specificity of their functioning in the climate crisis compared to childless people. The study included a group of 333 adults, including 67 parents. Self-report methods were used, including questionnaires developed specifically for this project that examined knowledge about the climate and belief in climate myths; as well as the inventories on current and planned pro-ecological activity. The proprietary scale examining climate emotions and the Climate Change Anxiety Scale by Clayton and Karazsia were also used. The relationships between the variables established in the group of parents and the differences between the groups of people who are parents and those who do not have children were analyzed. Based on the results of the study, an attempt was made to analyze the experiences and behaviours of parents in the context of the climate crisis, and a number of guidelines were formulated that can help them in dealing with children so that they experience the climate situation in the least burdensome way possible, while at the same time receiving support from adults, creating habits that are good for the climate and building up the motivation for pro-environmental activity.

* Badania zostały zrealizowane w ramach funduszy Priorytetowego Obszaru Badawczego Society of the Future w programie „Inicjatywa Doskonałości – Uczelnia badawcza” w Uniwersytecie Jagiellońskim w Krakowie.