The Celtic tribes migrated into Northern Italy in the late 8th and 7th centuries BC. In 390 BC the Gauls sacked the city of Rome. The Romans believed that they would never be safe while the Gauls threatened their northern frontier, so they colonized the land in the northern part of Picenum in 232 BC. In 225 BC, a huge Gallic army swarmed southwards through Etruria. Some 50,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry and chariots drawn from the Cisalpine Boii, Insubres, Taurisci and Transalpine Gaesatae plundered the region and annihilated the Roman forces at Clusium, 3 days of march north of Rome. At Telamon, however, they were intercepted by two Roman forces (8 legions and allies), approaching them from two opposite directions. The Gauls were forced to deploy their army facing both ways. The line facing rearward, anticipating Aemilius, had the Gaesatae in front and the Insubres behind them. Facing the opposite direction, ready to meet Atilius, were the Taurisci and Boii. Gaesatae (probably javeleeners) fought naked, standing proudly in front of the whole army with nothing but their weapons to protect them. The Insubres and Boii, by contrast, wore trousers and cloaks. The strength of a Gallic attack lay in the first onslaught, its power fuelled by the belief in a glorious afterlife, the desire for fame, and some hysteria fuelled by noise and chanting, and often enhanced by alcohol. Such charges lacked focus and, if repulsed, the Gauls had no strategy for recovery and became desperate. The Roman light infantry javelins inflicted heavy damage on the naked Gaesatae. The Roman maniples armed with a pila, a heavy javelin designed to penetrate the target’s shield, and a gladius, a short stabbing sword, attacked the Insubres, Boii and Taurisci.
The Gauls were finally defeated when they were attacked on their flank by the Roman cavalry. The Gallic infantry were cut to pieces, and the cavalry fled. Polybius reports that 40,000 Gauls were killed in the battle. The Battle of Telamon was the last recorded use of chariots in a battle on the European continent. During the 3rd century BC, the cavalry became more significant in Gallic warfare. After this battle, Gallic cavalry would serve as mercenary troops for foreign armies.

As a result of the wars of the second half of the 17th century, the gentry from a number of provinces of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were forced to seek refuge from the enemy in other, safer provinces, and to hold their dietines in exile. In the years 1648–1649, the gentry from a number of Lesser Poland provinces were temporarily displaced, but most of them soon returned to their abodes. Citizens of the Ukrainian provinces were less fortunate. The Czerhnigovian, Bratslavian and Kievan gentry held virtually all of their dietines in that period in Włodzimierz in Volhynia. They convened in the Uniate cathedral church and in the Dominican Friars’ church. In their resolutions they continuously underscored the provisional but legal character of the place of their deliberations. The Ukrainian exiles (except Czernigovians) returned to their abodes in the 18th century. From 1672 to 1698, the Podolian gentry held their dietines in Halicz and later in Lviv (in Franciscan churches), and in 1699 in the Trinity Trenches, while Kamieniec Podolski was under Ottoman control.
 

The main purpose of this article is the analysis of the self-portrait of the nobility as presented in autobiographical literature. The analysis was based on four components typical not only of the period described, yet, taken together, determining a comprehensive self-portrait. These include: the fulfilment of genealogical conditions, which is associated with possessing one’s own crest; the theoretical and practical preparation for adult life – gained through education; the personal maturity manifested regardless of the stage of life, although with tolerance for some weakness – so typical of the teenage years; and finally the wealth, inherited and multiplied, although of various provenance, yet primarily used for the right purpose. The fulfilment of the genealogical conditions presented in the analysed autobiographies would be worth little but for the positive verification of the personality conditions based on internal excellence and morality built throughout life. They all enabled the existence of professional and even multi-professional conditions, like the noble’s right to and duty of a civil, parliamentary, diplomatic and military service, as well as working in one’s own belongings, for the benefit of the Republic. None of these, however, could occur, if not complemented by descriptions in the form of social conditioning. These asserted the involvement in the community’s life both on the micro and macro level, ranging from family relationships, friendships, neighbourhood or region, to national and religious community. These are the starting point and culmination of virtues such as patriotism and faith – certified individually and publicly. Such a kind of self-portrait of a nobleman was built by Krzysztof Pieniążek, Jerzy Ossoliński and Jan Chryzostom Pasek. At the same time, they ignored or misrepresented the biographical moments – especially Pieniążek and Pasek – which could depreciate the perfect picture. From a human point of view, those inaccuracies seem possible to excuse. In any case, however, they did not meet the standards of the era, the noble system of values, and hence the personal models and ideals. These standards testify as best as they can to the quality of the times that the Old Polish nobility had to live in.
 

In the second half of the 17th century, the educational journey, the grand tour, constituted the last stage of education of the European elites. To travel abroad was also important for young noblemen and aristocrats from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the grand tour became an established part of the educational canon of the period. It was also considered the key to a future career and successful participation in court and public life. Autograph books (alba amicorum) are a valuable source for discovering and reconstructing the course of an educational journey. The rich collection of the British Library in London holds an extremely interesting autograph book of a nobleman, probably of German origin, residing in Florence in the 1660s (Add MS 4976). Among over eighty entries, the album includes 3 names of Polish contributors, namely young Adam, Karol and Aleksander Tarło. The album is a valuable source that provides important details of the journey undertaken by the young Polish noblemen and insights into the contacts and routes of their grand tour.
 

The article describes selected aspects of Emperor Joseph II’s stay in Paris and Versailles in 1777. The journey of this ruler to France under the assumed title of Count Falkenstein received a wide coverage in contemporary sources. His curiosity and openness, and above all modest lifestyle, earned him great affection of the French capital inhabitants. He also earned the lasting gratitude of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, because he contributed to the improvement of their mutual relation. In Paris he met a number of prominent figures of French politics, culture and science, perseveringly looking for patterns that could be used later in the Habsburg monarchy.
 

Because of the priests’ obligation to preach, teach catechisms, and hear confessions, books were essential in ministry. Bishops asked about them during visitations and sporadically recommended certain works, but it was not common to propose a comprehensive, coherent and well-designed set of obligatory reading for parsons. However, such an exceptional literary canon was created under the name of Bishop Michał Jerzy Poniatowski. The research problems of this article are the ideology of the proposed set of books and its reception among the parish clergy in the Diocese of Płock. I examined pastoral letters, recommended works and visitation protocols informing about book collections. As a result, I concluded that the canon represented the ideas of Catholic Enlightenment such as: orthodoxy, intellectualism, focus on morality, classicist style and rehabilitation of reason. However, the parish clergy accepted only practical and well-known genres regardless of stylistic and ideological novelty.
 

The aim of the paper is to consider the concept of “People’s Poland,” which was coined and developed by representatives of the so-called Great Emigration, small emigration and (to a certain degree) in the Polish territories (1830s–1870s). Basing on the methodological categories of conceptual history, in our work we formulate three theses. Firstly, we consider “People’s Poland” as a historiosophical category which creates an asymmetrical pair of counter-concepts with “Noble Poland.” Secondly, we note that “People’s Poland” was also used as a label for an existing people’s class, and in this sense it served to create a new political subject. And thirdly, we point out that the concept of “People’s Poland” supported the formation of a common identity by the Polish Leftists of that time. In general, this article likewise can be treated as a contribution to the studies on the semantic continuity of the Polish Left and on the genealogy of the language of Stalinism in the 20th century.
 

The Restoration in Spain (1874–1931) has been arousing controversy among historians for a long period of time. During the Restoration, the situation in the country was rather stable and its economic growth was slow, but steady. The origins of the bad reputation of the Restoration can be associated with the defeat in the war with the United States (1898) and with the economic backwardness – in comparison with the most powerful nations of Europe (e.g. France or the UK). Nowadays, historians are stressing the fact that Europe’s social and economic growth was not stable in the period of fin de siècle. Some elements of Spanish society – like the structure of the elites – were relatively modern in the context of the epoch, and Spain was not a country dominated by landlords and aristocracy from the Black Legend (la leyenda negra) images.
 

The presented historical source edition consists of instructions and a passport given to Captain Michał Flok by Prince Bogusław Radziwiłł in 1660, together with a supplement most probably created by Jan Mierzeński. The unit of dragoons led by Michał Flok was meant to overrun Zabłudów and Orla, which belonged to the Radziwiłł family, and retake them from the Lithuanian army. The instructions detail the road which Flok’s dragoon unit was supposed to take in order to get to Zabłudów and Orla. Moreover, they explain how to behave towards the people living in the territories along the way and towards the Lithuanian soldiers, their families as well as the inhabitants of the Zabłudów and Orla lands. The supplement contains, among other things, information on what to tell representatives of the army while retaking the lands, how to deal with the soldiers and local inhabitants, how to allocate the dragoons in Zabłudów and Orla, and how to communicate with the Prince and his administration. At the very end of the supplement, the monthly soldier’s pay for Captain Flok’s unit is indicated. The source edition also includes the passport which was given to Michał Flok and his troops so that they could advance freely towards Podlachia.

Frank Dikötter shows the formative years of the Chinese Communist regime, a period often seen as relatively peaceful compared with what followed. Drawing on newly-opened provincial archives, as well as quoting old and well-known but forgotten non-Communist Chinese and Western sources, he convincingly debunks the myth of the “golden” years of Mao’s dictatorship. Focusing on neither internal party intrigues nor foreign policy, but on everyday experiences of ordinary people, this revisionist book reconstructs the regime of tyranny, which brought on widespread misery rather than a time of “liberation.”
 

This article deals with the book Izraelsko-arabskie walki powietrzne [Israeli-Arab Aerial Combat] by Jakub Marszałkiewicz. Its author tries not only to summarise the aerial combats from the year 1948 to the present but also to show the beginnings of the Israeli Air Force. Unfortunately, this task seems to overwhelm him. The reviewed publication contains so many mistakes and ambiguities that it is impossible to analyse them fully in a review. As a result, only the most important ones are corrected. Marszałkiewicz does not refer to recent major publications related to his topic. He mostly draws on old books and articles published in Polish without even trying to verify their claims. Unfortunately, he has some difficulties with using other authors’ works. Summing up, this is a book that not only brings nothing new to historiography but also preserves many old mistakes and myths, even adding new ones to the existing list.

Karolina Kolanowska, Jarosław Kita, Zapomniane polskie uzdrowiska, Wydawnictwo Księży Młyn Dom Wydawniczy, Łódź 2016, ss. 317 619

Paweł Sękowski, Tomasz Skrzyński, Miejsce na scenie politycznej i losy PSL „Nowe Wyzwolenie”, PSL „Lewica” oraz „odrodzonego” PSL w latach 1946–1949 (1950), Warszawa, Muzeum Historii Polskiego Ruchu Ludowego, Warszawa 2015, ss. 400  625

Jarema Słowiak, Gregory A. Daddis, Westmoreland’s War: Reassessing American Strategy in Vietnam, Oxford University Press, New York 2014, pp. XXV + 250  633

Małgorzata-Julia Willaume, Lucian Boia, Dlaczego Rumunia jest inna?, przekład J. Kornaś-Warwas, Międzynarodowe Centrum Kultury, Kraków 2016, ss. 449  639