The article presents one of the most controversial issues in the history of the medieval heresies – the issue of the eleventh-century heresies – those discovered in Aquitaine (1016–1018), Orléans (1022), Arras (1025), Monteforte (1028–1040), Châlons-sur-Marne (1043–1048) and Goslar (1051). Their origins and character have been highly controversial since the middle of the 20th century. The article presents the conceptions of scholars, adherents of the two main streams of interpretation. The first of them was started by the works of the French Dominican historian Antoine Dondaine, who claimed that these heresies were dualistic in nature and were seriously influenced by the eastern heresies of this kind, mainly Bogomilism. The second one was created by the Italian Medievalist Raffaello Morghen, who believed that eleventh-century heresies were a genuine invention of the Westerners, trying to revive early, pure Christianity, based on the testimony of the New Testament. He and his followers deny their dualistic character. Besides these two streams, the article also presents the conceptions of the scholars belonging to the deconstructionist school, which has recently become more and more popular. Its adherents completely deny the existence of the eleventh-century heresies, claiming that in fact they were invented by the Church authors, trying to discredit the innocent reformers.
All the conceptions mentioned above are compared with the testimonies of the sources describing the eleventh-century heresies. Their information concerning heretical beliefs and practices are strikingly similar to the analogous eastern (Bulgarian and Byzantine) sources about the Bogomils, which is a strong argument for the traditional interpretation of Dondaine and his followers.
 

Many specialists in Manichaeism wrote after World War II about the religious Manichaean narrative as a myth or a mythology. In this paper I examine whether the Manichaean narrative actually meets the criteria of definition of myth. This question is also worth asking because some scholars emphasise the monosemic character of the mentioned narrative. The definition of myth which I use is that of Andrzej Wierciński (1930–2003), a Polish anthropologist of religion. Among my reasons for choosing this is because it includes as many as nine features of myth and also refers to scientific narrative, which by its nature has one level of meaning. I refer this definition, above all, to Manichaean evidence in the Coptic language, but when the need arises I also invoke other sources, both polemical and apologetic.

The article shows the main issues in the dispute over marriage within contemporary Catholicism. It also presents possibilities and limitations of the attempts at reinterpretation of traditional Catholic doctrinal formulations. These attempts, which are related to the assemblies of the Synod of Bishops in 2014 and 2015, are aimed at greater openness of the Catholic Church towards the divorced and remarried. They are also intended to maintain unity within the Catholic dogmatic, ethical and canonical tradition as a justified expression of its development. Firstly, the article presents the main issues of the ongoing dispute in the Church. Secondly, it describes the language of this dispute. Thirdly, it shows Walter Kasper’s proposals and their criticism from the point of view of the conservative wing in the Church.

The Islamic Revolution had a great impact on defining the position of religious minorities in Iran. Christians belonging to ethnic churches – Armenians and Assyrians – obtained constitutional rights. Others, especially Anglicans, conducting missionary activity, faced restrictions and persecution such as confiscation of property and arrests caused by the revolutionary authorities.

The article presents Anglicans’ attitudes toward the Islamic Revolution, taking into account the international context of events related to the imprisonment of British citizens in 1980 – employees of the Anglican Diocese of Iran. It tries to prove, in fact, profound changes, both quantitative and qualitative, within Christianity in the Islamic Republic of Iran.

In recent decades, there has been increasing criticism of the dichotomy which is deeply rooted in research on religion and Judaism, namely the dichotomy between linear and cyclical notion of time with categories of history and myth respectively related to them. The aim of this article is to point out how in one religious tradition different models of time can coexist and be inextricably intertwined. The text which supports this idea is the anonymous kabbalistic treatise entitled Sefer ha-Temunah, probably composed in the mid-14th century within areas of the Byzantine Empire. The main topic of this treatise is the kabbalistic doctrine of cosmic cycles (shemittot and yovel), which is an idea of worlds periodically created and returning into a state of chaos. In this work I adapt Moshe Idel’s view, according to which the elementary structure of time in Judaism in its ritual dimension is based not on relations between precisely defined events, but on the central role played by the number seven and the process of counting to seven itself. The paper examines what role is played by the number seven and the system of associations constructed over it in the cyclical concept of time presented in Sefer ha-Temunah. I also adopt the assumptions of theory of ritual by Roy A. Rappaport to indicate that the source of the idea of cyclical time in cosmic scale is the experience of repeatability of events in ritual. This view is confirmed on the basis of the hermeneutics of Sefer ha-Temunah and allows a better understanding of this text.

The Powerless Godhead and Wandering Souls. The Dybbuk’s Divine Paradigm in the Russian Original of Between Two Worlds by S. An-sky

In this paper I demonstrate the concept of the Jewish godhead as presented in the drama Between Two Worlds: The Dybbuk by S. An-sky (Shloyme Zanvl Rappoport), and analyses the phenomenon of a dybbuk, which was very popular in the culture of Hasidim. It should be mentioned that the research subject became the Russian original of the text of An-sky’s drama. The text was found in St Petersburg in 2001. The original differs significantly from its Yiddish and Hebrew versions: the Russian version ofThe Dybbuk is preceded by a long “Prologue”, where the play’s author suggests its most important ideas to the viewers. Thus, the reinterpretation of An-sky’s drama, seen from a philosophical perspective, enables one to justify the thesis that theauthor was conscious of some incoherency intrinsically present in the realm of the religious beliefs of Hasidic communities, where both the God of Biblical and Talmudic narratives, and the impersonal godhead of Kabbalah were, simultaneously, worshipped. What is more: the author also focuses on the weakness of the godhead, as he or she has been deprived of his or her primordial, male-female, unity. At the same time, while analysing An-sky’s text, I draw attention to the fact that in this play a dybbuk, an evil spirit existing in a living person’s body, is portrayed as a much better entity: An-sky’s dybbuk is a soul of a man who died prematurely, and who is wandering and missing his earthly lover, similarly to Shekhinah, who is missing her lover in heaven, and is wandering in exile, together with the Jewish nation.

The aim of the article is to analyse the representation of Rama in Indian commercial cinema and to identify its social impact. In mythological films, Rama is presented as a ruler and as a protector of dharma (eternal moral law and the main principle of social order). Because of their specific form, mythological films allow spectators to contemplate the image of Rama and to commune with the god. In turn, films which put Ramayana’s story in a present-day context present Rama as a modern-day hero. Rama is no longer depicted as a god, but as a man or a super hero. His image is more human and more attractive, which in consequence satisfies the audience and its needs.