Abstract: Springs are objects of natural environment, which are studied by different scientific disciplines: geography, hydrology, hydrogeology, hydrochemistry, hydrobiology, ecology, environmental protection, landscape architecture, touring, archeology and ethnography. These objects, in both the past and the present, were of a great importance to  man, who, in different ways and very willingly, used the clean water flowing out and the surrounding environment. Springs, giving rise to streams, which feed into larger rivers, have great scientific, economic, natural, landscape, cultural and even therapeutic values. They have been protected from devastation and pollution for centuries, mainly due to the rational and often iconic perception of them. They were and still are objects of mystification resulting from the assignment of miraculous properties to their water and fantastic legends and historical events to places where they flow out. The question of the origin of water coming from springs has always been vividly discussed. It has contributed to both the development of natural sciences and to the creation of fantastic theories pointing to a specific “power” of these places and healing properties of discharging water. Interesting descriptions of springs that draw people’s attention have appeared in many travel experience stories, which brought them fame. Many springs have become places of worship, being famous for the descriptions of their healing abilities, related myths and fantastic phenomena, which additionally increased the desire to feel their “spirit”.

The area of Poland is already quite well recognized in the aspect of springs. The knowledge about Polish springs has definitely increased in recent decades, mainly as a result of research conducted at all academic centers of the country, as well as thanks to the work on consecutive charts of the Hydrographic Map of Poland. The oldest  information about springs in Poland can be found in historical records as well as in information and descriptions prepared for the needs of mining and balneology. Specialist publications and monographic views on springs and other groundwater outflows appeared in the middle of the 18th century. The springs of Małopolska were recognized at earliest. In the second half of the 20th century scientific works on the springs of the Tatras were published, followed by descriptions of the Carpathians, the Sudetes and the uplands: Kraków-Wieluń, Miechów, Lublin as well as the Nida Basin. Springs of the Łódź Region were also examined. At the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century numerous issues, documenting the occurrence of springs and other outflows in the lowlands and lakelands of Poland, were also published. Despite the quite intensive research and passing years, the number of springs in Poland is still not known, not even estimated. Few outflows are monitored continuously. There are many reasons for this, including the disappearance and devastation of many objects because of anthropopressure and low interest in springs in hydrological and hydrogeological communities. It is probably due to the fact that springs operate at the boundary of the surface and the underground phase of the water cycle. In spite of this, dozens of springs in Poland have been studied in detail, in terms of hydrology, hydrochemistry, hydrobiology and water management.

The place of natural outflow of groundwater with the accompanying depression and water discharge stream creates the spring niche, and, in a wider perspective, the spring zone (the spring area). Such areas occur in various topographical, hydrographic and hydrogeological conditions. The way the water flows out as well as its dynamics and properties are also diversified. Springs waters, usually of a very good quality, have been used by humans for their needs for a long time. Their intakes form an important part of the water management infrastructure. At the same time, the sites of water outflow are important elements of natural and cultural landscapes, enriching them with new values and forms. Springs are often the objects of cultural and religious heritage and are tightly linked to the history of a given place or have a particular significance to the local community. They are sites willingly visited by tourists and recreationists. They provide the basis for the development of balneology and touring, as well as for the cult associated with the symbolism of water or religion.

Springs are important elements of geographical environment, they are also objects possessing unique scientific, landscape and water management characteristics. Due to their high susceptibility to anthropopressure, related to the frequent devastation of outflow sites and degradation of water resources, it is necessary to implement systematic and, nowadays, even urgent activities to preserve these places in their possibly natural state. Such protection should cover the place of outflow of underground water, the spring niche, as well as the groundwater basin. This task can be implemented by local communities, via administrative or ecological education, adequate to the course of actions and the significance of the local impact on the environment. In the case of particularly valuable springs, the establishment of protection zones, which would be similar to the preservation zones of public wells, should also be taken into account. However, to achieve this, it is necessary to recognize, calibrate and, above all, provide an inventory of all valuable springs in Poland.

Abstract: The aim of the study was to estimate the rate and extent of overgrowth of a water reservoir on the example of Lake Gardno, based on the normalized index of vegetation NDVI. In the assessment of the changes taking place in individual summer seasons within the lake basin a thorough analysis was made based on satellite imagery  performed for the years 2000–2014. The main assumption was to develop an appropriate method to determine the extent of expansion of water vegetation on the example of the selected lake. Preliminary results were compiled with monthly average air temperatures and monthly mean precipitation totals, then a detailed analysis was performed to demonstrate the relationships between the effective overgrowth and local meteorological conditions. The observed changes in the ever-growing litoral zone allowed us to suppose that Lake Gardno is going to disappear.

Abstract: The aim of the study is to determine the influence of freshwater fish farming on the chemical status of water in the catchment of the Wąska river. The paper presents the results of physicochemical studies of water supplying and discharged from fish ponds at Klekotki. At measurement points located on the Wąska river above and below the ponds the following properties were determined: total nitrogen, total phosphorus and concentrations of dissolved ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, sulphates. The observations showed that the physicochemical state of water supplying the ponds is below good because of too high phosphate concentrations (0.57 mg∙dm–3 above the joints and 0.41 mg∙dm–3 below). In spite of that, it was stated that fish farming can positively affect the water purification process and improve the physical and chemical parameters of water, as evidenced by the reduction of total nitrogen concentrations by 66%, ammonia by 52%, sulphates by 50%, nitrates by 46% and phosphate by 28%, below the discharge of water from the ponds in relation to the supplying waters. In addition, it was found that the dynamics of biogen transport in the fish pond system is characterized by a clear seasonal differentiation and is associated with the size of outflow.

Abstract: The study determines the frequency of monthly thermal anomalies in the Mediterranean Basin (approx. south of 45oN), in the area from Lisbon in the west to Van in eastern Turkey, changes in the frequency of such anomalies over six decades, as well as the location and size of the area over which they occurred. The present study is based  on the average monthly air temperature values from 80 meteorological stations in the years 1951–2010. Thermally anomalous months are considered to have occurred when the average air temperature t at a given station differed from the corresponding tav. by at least 2 standard deviations (σ); for anomalously cold months (ACMs: t£tav.–2σ) and for anomalously warm months (AWMs: t≥tav.+2σ). One feature that distinguishes the Mediterranean Basin from the rest of Europe located in the temperate climate zone is the prevalence of AWMs over ACMs. The number of ACMs and AWMs showed significant variations over the 60-year period. The years 1971–1980 were the coldest ones, while the 21st century saw the highest temperatures. The vast majority of ACMs and AWMs occur over small areas. There were 22 anomalous months (11 ACMs and AWMs) that covered larger areas (at least 25% of the stations).

Abstract: To determine extreme weather types in Lublin, in the years 1951–2015, the typology of Woś was applied. It provided a basis for the designation of two extreme thermal types: one with hot and one with very frosty weather. Furthermore, a type of weather with intensive precipitation, not included in the original version of the classification, was  analysed. Meteorological data used in the study were obtained from the Meteorological Observatory of the Department of Meteorology and Climatology of the Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin. The circulation conditions were determined based on the classification of circulation types for the area of Central-Eastern Europe.

In the years 1951–2015 extreme weather types occurred in Lublin for 5 days in a year on average. Days with the hot weather type were recorded most frequently. Their occurrence was favoured by air advection from the southern or eastern sector with a transitional or anticyclonic character. In the analysed multi-annual period an increasing tendency in  he number of such days was observed. The number of days with the very frosty weather type, primarily related to the advection of air masses from the east, decreased. In the case of the number of days with the weather type with intensive precipitation no evident tendency of changes was determined in the analysed period.

Abstract: The current global warming causes changes in traditional zones of viticulture worldwide. Poland becomes a country where there are more and more vineyards. The purpose of this work was to characterize vineyards in Poland and indicate in which vineyards there is a possibility of a precise characterization of mesoclimate. A database on  the viticulture in Poland created on the basis of information from the Internet. A map was also created, presenting the distribution of vineyards and meteorological stations of the IMGW-PIB. Polygons with a radius of 30 km were designated, constituting the locational criterion for the precise characterization of mesoclimate. A map was prepared to present vineyards’ distribution and Poland’s land relief. There are 397 Polish vineyards in the data base. Above 82% of them are located within a radius of 30 km from the nearest meteorological station and most of them (94%) are located to 400 meters above sea level and in river valleys. A favourable location in terms of the exposure and inclination of the slope characterizes respectively 58% and 45% of vineyards.