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Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I

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Publication date: 11.09.2024

Description
Cover photo: Sankogan, japońska firma farmaceutyczna działająca nieprzerwanie od 1319 r., Gose, prefektura Nara, Japonia
Fot. ze zbiorów Sankogan Museum, director Jun Asami

Licence: None

Editorial team

Volume Editors Iwona Arabas, Robert Księżopolski

Editor-in-Chief Jaromir Jeszke

Deputy Editor-in-Chief Iwona Arabas

Secretary Magdalena Paciorek, Anna Marek

Issue content

History of pharmacy and botany

Ludwik Frey

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 11 - 34

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.010.20003
Mentions about the death of Judas Iscariot, presented as a negative figure because of handing Jesus over to death, can be found in the Holy Scriptures, in the Gospel of St. Matthew and in the Acts of the Apostles, as well as in biblical literature. According to the most widespread opinion, the apostle committed suicide by hanging himself on a tree whose name was not specified. Apocrypha, various legends and tradition mention representatives of at least seven genera of trees, which, incidentally, have medicinal properties, although it is difficult to pinpoint the species. In an attempt to determine it, selected trees were presented and the possibilities of using them as a tool for the execution of Judas were discussed, discussing in turn: the size and shape of the tree, its area of occurrence and symbolism.
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Robert Księżopolski

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 35 - 55

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.011.20004
In Antiquity, the term “medicine” meant a substance used for medicinal purposes, of plant, mineral or animal origin. Nowadays, in addition to the term “medicine”, the legal term “medicinal product” is used more and more often. According to the tradition of galenic pharmacy, the term plant medicine (or medicinal product of plant origin) meant whole medicinal plants, their specific parts (herb, flowers, leaf, inflorescences, roots, tubers, rhizomes, etc.) used for medicinal purposes, or their various formulations obtained from fresh or dried plants. Nowadays, the term medicinal product is reserved for substances with documented effects, confirmed by safety studies and clinical trials. Among products of plant origin, there are many other categories of products that do not constitute medicinal products, i.e. do not have “the ability to prevent or treat diseases occurring in humans or animals, or are administered for the purpose of making a diagnosis or for the purpose of restoring, improving or modifying physiological functions of the body through pharmacological, immunological or metabolic action”, according to the definition of a medicinal product defined in the Pharmaceutical Law in Poland. The differentiation of plant-based products is based on their properties and the purpose of their use, not on the source of origin.
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Anna Trojanowska

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 57 - 77

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.012.20005
Since ancient times, saffron – Crocus sativus L. has been used in Europe as a medicinal raw material, spice and dye. It was called crocus and saffron and various medicinal properties were attributed to it. It was believed, for example, that it revitalized the brain and heart, stimulated the senses, and protected against poisons. Saffron was a component of many medicines, including popular anti-plague remedies, such as theriac, and was also a characteristic spice of Old Polish cuisine. Saffron was mentioned in Polish Renaissance herbariums and in old cookbooks. The aim of the work is to indicate what properties of saffron were mentioned by Polish herbarium authors as important for medicinal use, and what properties were important for its use as a spice.
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Marzanna Jagiełło

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 79 - 116

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.013.20006
The most famous garden in Wrocław, belonging to the doctor, humanist and collector Laurentius Scholz, has so far been described as divided functionally and formally into two, almost independent parts: a recreational and representative part (also serving as a place to pursue collecting passions and at the same time decorative) and a utilitarian part. – medicinal. The vast majority of flowering plants, especially rare ones at that time, were attributed to the former, while about 100 belonging to the group of herbs were attributed to the latter. Recent analyzes led to the conclusion that almost all (except seven of the total group of 240 species cultivated in Scholz’s garden) had medicinal properties. Therefore, the entire garden, also in its part perceived as flowery, served as hortus medicus. The research also confirmed numerous connections between the Wrocław site and one of the oldest botanical gardens in Europe – Hortus medicus Pataviani (i.e. the Botanical Garden in Padua).
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Bożena Popiołek

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 117 - 137

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.014.20007
Health care was one of the most important issues in the hierarchy of social values in the early modern era. The causes of diseases and the possibility of avoiding them were indicated, health prevention was recommended in the form of rest, “taking May”, relaxing water and herbal treatments, herbal infusions were drunk, various talismans and amulets were worn. Purchases of various herbal medicines can be found in orders for goods delivered to noble courts and in court accounts throughout the eighteenth century. However, treatments were rarely recommended and the herbal medicines used brought the expected results, ruining the health of patients.
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Lidia Maria Czyż

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 139 - 147

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.015.20008
Between Tulczyn and Uman in southwestern Ukraine, on the estate of Szczęsny Potocki, in the years 1796–1802 the park-garden „Zofiovka” was created, one of the most beautiful in 18th century Europe. The architect and contractor of the arboretum was L. Metzell. The most famous description is S. Trembecki’s poem „Zofiovka”, like the name of the park. They also wrote about the unique work of gardening art J.U. Niemcewicz i A. Mickiewicz. The unfinished novel by J. Słowacki „The King of Ladava” takes place in „Zofi ovka”. This unique steppe park is under the care of the State Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, in 1995 it received the Europa Nostra Medal.
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Iwona Dymarczyk, Ewa Capecka

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 149 - 182

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.016.20009
The work presents some ingredients of complex medicines available in European pharmacies in the 16th–19th centuries, selected on the basis of studies of the collection of pharmacy vessels by Mateusz B. Grabowski, Museum of Pharmacy at the Jagiellonian University – Medical College. The plant resin raw materials included in these medicines, their ancient and contemporary significance, were discussed.
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Piotr Daszkiewicz

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 183 - 187

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.017.20010
Plants, including medicinal plants, have been associated with armies and wars for centuries. The written history of military phytotherapy dates back at least to the time of Dioscorides, which is already 2,000 years old. Medicinal plants associated with the military belong to a specific ethnobotanical category of “war plants”, called in French “plantes obdisionales”, a category created by French botanists after the French-Prussian waśr in 1870. The article reminds the army’s relationship with the cinchona tree, the search for quinine substitutes, as well as the search for these trees in Peru during World War II, Richard Schultes’ research. The abovementioned coca is used by the Peruvian army during the War of Independence. The role of the botanical gardens of the French Navy and the front gardens of soldiers during World War I were presented. Military botanicals expeditions in North Africa in the 19th century were mentioned. In conclusion, the author states the important role of the army in the history of medicinal plants and the need to continue research on this issue.
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Aleksandra Jakóbczyk-Gola

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 189 - 216

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.018.20011
The article is intended to signal the transformations in the specifics of animal treatment with the use of medicines of plant origin – from attempts arising from medical practice, herbalism applied to humans, to an increasingly professional approach, as a consequence of the formation of a professional approach to veterinary treatment and the development of zoological knowledge in Poland. The text analyzes veterinary textbooks, agricultural treatises, encyclopedias and handbooks.

First of all, horses were treated as the most valuable animals, the most helpful to man and the most connected with him. Documents on their care are the oldest sources attesting to the development of veterinary medicine in Poland. Already in the accounts of the court of Wladyslaw Jagiello, issued in 1394, there was information about a fee for the treatment of sick horses by a farrier – surgery and medicines. The earliest veterinary textbook is considered to be a small book published in 1532, Sprawa a lekarstwa końskie written by a Konrad – a royal veterinarian. Another text analyzed in the article is a treatise by Krzysztof Dorohostajski: Hippika to jest o koniach księgi, published in Cracow in 1603.

Another animal species that was also given veterinary care was dogs. The article includes a discussion of plant medicines described in Jan Ostroróg’s hunting treatise from 1618 Myślistwo z ogary. A great deal of information on the term of medicines for various livestock species is also contained in Jakub Kazimierz Haur’s Ekonomika ziemiańska from 1675.

The 18th century was dominated, also in veterinary medicine, by French writing, and then the professionalization of the medical approach can be seen. This is a consequence of the fact that the fi rst school, training doctors in this direction, was established in 1762 in Lyon. The article analyzes plant medicines for livestock, including insects, which were described in the works of Jan Krzysztof Kluk. Closing the considerations presented in the article is the analysis of medicinal plant species presented in Zoonomii czyli Sztuka leczenia chorób wewnętrznych i zewnętrznych, by A. Piatkowski, published in 1809.
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Jacek Drobnik

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 217 - 264

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.019.20012
This work shows the birth of the concept of the microbial origin of disease in the 19th century, as influenced by earlier advances in the knowledge of drugs and poisons. It attempts to understand the essence of ancient medical theories (about miasmas, contagions, hospital infections, venoms of infectious diseases) by understanding the dosage forms of old anti-plague remedies and prophylactic behaviours. The ancient term miasma represented a pathogenic gas. It was considered a chemical poison and called aër, vapor or halitus in the 18th-century toxicology. Such a nature demanded to admit that gas retained its infectious nature in significant dilutions, which contradicted chemical knowledge. The 16thcentury term cont agium was an idea of contact infection and any other one caused by visible pathogenic matter. In the 19th century, hospital-acquired gangrene was thought to be transmitted by evaporating excretions and thus ultimately by the polluted air of hospital wards. This delayed the recognition of contagion as both contact infection and contamination of objects. In 1785, J. Plenck divided poisons into dose-dependent and dose-independent ones. The former were vegetable and inorganic chemical poisons. The latter caused infectious diseases, which he called virus. The idea of microorganisms was born only after the multiplication of chemical poisons was questioned. This required to assume that a pathogenic “poison” is produced in minute cells, living and able to reproduce. Hahnemann’s theory did not fi t with the concept of the microbial origin of disease.
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Renata Paliga

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 265 - 304

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.020.20013
The first cholera epidemic in Warsaw occurred during the November Uprising in April 1831. It was a disease unknown to Polish doctors. Answers to questions about etiology, properties (infectious – non-infectious) and effective methods of prevention and treatment were sought. The conditions of war and epidemics highlighted the organizational shortcomings of the health service and the shortage of doctors. Doctors from abroad came to the capital of the Kingdom of Poland to supplement the medical staff and learn about the unknown disease before it spreads to the entire European continent. The aim of the article is to present the methods of treating cholera in Warsaw during the first cholera epidemic and to emphasize its impact on the development of world medicine.
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Pharmaceutical sciences

Hirohisa Suido, Shoji Asada, Iwona Arabas

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 307 - 321

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.021.20014
Amur cork tree (Phellodendron amurense Rupr., “Kihada” in Japanese) has been one of the most important medicinal raw materials in Japan since ancient times, used in various mixed oriental herbal medicines (mainly gastrointestinal), e.g. “Sankogan”.

We researched the leaves of Phellodendron amurense as a material for a new type of food (health-promoting food), in terms of ingredients and its property, suitability for food processing and acceptability for consumers. After cutting off, the leaves were so quickly steamed (for enzyme inactivation), freeze-dried, and turned to powder (up to 0.1 mm in diameter). Finally, they were packed and stored in the refrigerator. An analysis revealed that there is no caffeine in the leaves, and they are safer than coffee, black tea, green tea, and chocolate. However, they contain a high content of calcium, folic acid, dietary fi ber, polyphenols, ß-carotene, and lutein. Also, we found that a 50% ethanol extract of the leaves had an antibacterial effect against Streptococcus mutans (a cariogenic bacterium), comparable to that of green tea. We have been trying to develop food products using the leaves, such as cakes, cookies, and teas. The leaves did not change their original green color even after baking. Any problem couldn’t be observed before or after mixing, dissolving, baking, etc., necessary for manufacturing sweets. Preliminary sensory test revealed that tested sweets were all well accepted, and there was no complaint above the color, taste and flavor.

We are going to develop also other foods and drinks for pregnant women, children, and elderly people.
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Joanna Gil, Zuzanna Rabiej

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 323 - 342

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.022.20015
Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is a plant from the Allioideae subfamily belonging to the Amaryllidaceae family, and it is cultivated as a one or two-year bulbous plant. It is one of the most extensively researched medicinal herbs, widely used both in medicine and cuisine as a food ingredient and spice. Allium sativum has been present in the human diet since ancient times due to its medicinal properties. Traditionally, it has been used for various purposes, both orally and topically. Pharmacologically, it has antihyperlipidemic, antihypertensive, antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antidiabetic, anticarcinogenic, hepatoprotective, antiviral, immunomodulatory and hypoglycemic effects. These properties are associated with the high antioxidant activity of garlic and the presence of volatile sulfur compounds (alliin, allicin, diallyl disulfi de, ajoene, and many others), which are also responsible for the pungent taste of this vegetable. Garlic plays a signifi cant role in culture, especially in the context of culinary traditions. Nevertheless, as a result of various food processing methods, its therapeutic properties and antioxidant abilities undergo changes.
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Elżbieta Jędrszczyk, Aleksandra Fira

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 343 - 365

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.023.20016
Common garlic (Allium sativum L.) is one of the oldest medicinal and spice plants in the world. The most popular and commonly used consumer part are onions, but the leaves and inflorescence are gaining more and more interest among consumers, especially in Asian countries. Wild garlic (Allium ursinum L.) is a wild plant in Poland, used because of the leaves. They are used mainly for salads and as seasoning for meat, which increases the assortment and vegetable diversity in the kitchen. Its bulbs and infl orescence shoots are also edible. Elephant garlic (Allium ampeloprasum var. ampeloprasum) is not very widespread in Poland. This species is becoming popular in the United States because of its mild taste and smell, which creates it as alternative to common garlic.

The aim of the study was to compare chemical composition and the content of active compounds in leaves, infl orescences and onions of three tested garlic species.
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Robert Gruszecki, Magdalena Walasek-Janusz

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 367 - 383

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.024.20017
The rose is a versatile plant, it provides “jam and wine”, surrounds us with beauty and a pleasant scent, which in the form of essential oil is also a valuable cosmetic. The flowers, fruits, leaves, roots and galls, and even the soil in which it grew, were used in traditional herbal medicine in rural communities. These raw materials were used to prepare infusions, decoctions, jams, juices, water and alcohol extracts, ointments and smoke, which were used to fumigate the sick person or diseased places. They were used to treat eye diseases, dermatological diseases, diarrhea, dysentery, consumption, fever, cough, ulcers, wounds, bone, tooth, head and eye pain, and even to treat madness. Most often, however, rose was used to treat erysipelas, in Polish the name of the disease and the plant was identical, according to the principle “like cures like”. The multitude of obtained “medicines” and the variety of ways of preparing and using these raw materials indicate the ability of traditional communities to observe, draw conclusions, and also cope with situations when access to medical care was very limited. These observations, often supported by long practice, can inspire us to conduct further research on the medicinal properties of this valuable plant.
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Etnography

Danuta Penkala-Gawęcka

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 387 - 407

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.025.20018
Studies on folk and traditional medicine conducted in various regions of the world reveal that medicines, and especially medicinal plants, can hardly be differentiated from “healthy food” treated as having healing properties or good for prevention against disease. Therapeutic recommendations often include prescription for a special diet. For example, it is always considered necessary for successful treatment according to humoral concepts of health and illness, popular in parts of Central Asia. In addition, both food and medicines often have symbolic meanings. They can serve as markers of ethnic and cultural identity, signs of long-standing tradition and/or religion. Such roles of traditional medicines and food in Central Asia were connected with the efforts of the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union, trying to legitimise their existence through references to their rich cultural heritage. In this article I analyse these issues on the example of a “healthy drink” called aktyk, which has gained in popularity in Kyrgyzstan during the period of my ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Bishkek between 2011–2013. I discuss its connections to similar drinks, kymyz in particular, and various methods, including manipulations of “tradition”, employed by the producers of aktyk in order to attract the clients. Furthermore, I present the perspective of aktyk’s users, who seem rather pragmatic and focused on achieving health improvement.
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Justyna Makowska-Wąs, Agnieszka Galanty

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 409 - 442

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.026.20019
Lake Baikal, located in the southern part of Siberia, separates the Irkutsk Oblast from the current Republic of Buryatia. From the southwestern end of the lake, the Sayan mountain range stretches towards Altai. In Buryatia, at the foot of the Eastern Sayan and on the border of the Tunkin Valley, lies the village of Arshan, known for its mineral waters. In this region, located at the junction of high mountains and the vast Irkut valley, many species of plants that are growing in nature are used in traditional medicine. An important context is the ethnic and religious diversity of the inhabitants of Buryatia, hence in this area we can also encounter traditional Tibetan or Mongolian medicine, and even shamanic practices.

The work is a summary of the visit to the Arshan herbal market, the description is based on interviews with sellers and our own observations. The medicinal raw materials offered on the market are mainly dried plants, their secretions (e.g. resJustyna ins), and mushrooms. You can also buy portioned herbs and ready-made herbal mixtures. Some products have different labels describing their healing effects and use
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Medicinal plants in literature and art

Joanna Partyka

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 445 - 460

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.027.20020
Laurel bay (Laurus nobilis) is a plant with a wide range of usage and interesting symbolism. It was Apollo’s favorite plant, and its leaves and stems were used to foretell the future. It was used to make sedative drops and aromatic oil. Bay leaves are considered, also in Polish cuisine, as an important spice, enhancing the taste of various dishes. From the Latin name of the shrub comes the names Laura, made famous by Petrarch, as well as Lawrence (Laurentius), and the Latin laureatus (from the act of crowning the winner in a competition with a laurel), exists in Polish as “laureate”, although laurel wreaths are no longer woven. Laurel has also been a literary and mythological hero, and figures in the repertoire of fixed phraseological compounds. The plant is therefore a multidisciplinary ‘phenomenon’ and will be treated as such here.
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Piotr Wolski

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 461 - 477

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.028.20021
This article presents information about the life and work of Jan Černy (circa 1450– circa 1530), who is considered the first physician to write medical texts in the Czech language. His biography is depicted against the backdrop of the era, which includes phenomena and events such as the decline of the Luxembourg dynasty’s rule in Bohemia and the Hussite Wars. This period was characterized by a vibrant economic and cultural development in the Kingdom of Bohemia, which the article connects to Černy’s medical activities. The detailed part of the text discusses the opus magnum of this writer, which is “Knie-ha lékarská, kteráž slove herbář aneb zelinář,” printed in Nuremberg in 1517, with particular focus on Černy’s method of describing medical matters and selected linguistic aspects of this work. Additionally, the article provides a brief comparison of Černy’s writings with those of Stefan Falimirz, highlighting potential similarities in the linguistic layer. The aim of the article is to acquaint the Polish audience with Jan Černy and emphasize his contributions to the development of pharmacobotanical lexicon in West Slavic languages, as well as outline preliminary issues for further research.
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Jadwiga Clea Moreno-Szypowska

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 479 - 506

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.029.20022
Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra has been associated with medicine since his very birth in Alcalá de Henares, in a house adjacent to the hospital where his father worked. From him, the future writer inherited an extensive library, in which a prominent place was occupied by the work De Materia Medica by Dioscorides, translated and completed by Andrés Laguna, a prominent physician and botanist, the initiator of the establishment of the first botanical garden in Spain. Thus, from his youth, the author of Don Quixote had the opportunity to learn in detail about the healing effects of plants. It was not only his background that influenced Cervantes’ interest in herbalism in the broadest sense, for his works present a full cross-section of the society of the time, which had no shortage of folk “miracle workers” practicing magic with the help of herbs. Fearing the Inquisition – particularly interested in combating practices that were considered to be deviant from the prevailing faith – the author of Don Quixote avoided naming the plants that his characters used in various ointments and decoctions in his works, lest it be assumed that he himself possessed some “secret”, i.e. forbidden, knowledge. However, the mere description of their “bizarre” behavior is enough for specialists to determine the ingredients of the stimulants, in which hallucinogens such as black loosestrife (Hyoscyamus niger), medicinal verbena (Verbena officinalis) and poppy (Papaver somniferum) predominated. This fact sheds new light on many of the heroes of Cervantes’ works, who, considered madmen or witches in their time, were in fact drug addicts. It is noteworthy that magic in the popular imagination of Cervantes’ time, was associated with a socially excluded group of descendants of converted Jews and Moors, from such families also came mostly doctors, like the writer’s father. This work focuses on presenting the nontherapeutic use of plants in selected works by Spain’s most prominent writer.
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Renata Bizek-Tatara

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 507 - 519

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.030.20023
This article is devoted to the ambivalence of medicinal plants in the novel The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas, using the examples of the crow’s eye tree and the St. Ignatius bean. The author analyzes descriptions of the properties of alkaloids obtained from them – strychnine and brucine – which, when properly used, can be a disease-curing medicine and an effective lethal poison. She also discusses the sources from which the writer obtained medical and pharmaceutical knowledge about plant toxins, their action and the symptoms they cause.
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Sandra Wawrzyniak

Modern medicine, Volume 30 (2024) Supplement I, 2024, pp. 521 - 548

https://doi.org/10.4467/12311960MN.24.031.20024
Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) has been acknowledged in European history since antiquity, gaining popularity in Poland from the 16th century onward. This article aims to elucidate the representation of the carnation in the facets of the Polish language, culture, and medicinal practices. The subject is of particular interest due to the evolving historical perspectives that have shaped perceptions of the plant’s attributes – from its esteemed role as a medicinal component to its later association as a symbol of socialism. Through an examination of Polish literary works, artistic expressions, and medical literature, this study seeks to discern the multifaceted identity of carnation within the Polish context. Such an analysis will facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the plant’s historical significance, cultural symbolism, and its enduring relevance in contemporary culture and herbal medicine practices.
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Słowa kluczowe: apocrypha, beliefs, Bible, common fig, Judas, legends, symbolism, willow, herbal medicine, materia medica, pharmacopoeia, pharmacognosy, phytotherapy, ethnobotany, herbal medicinal product, saffron, Crocus sativus L., Polish Renaissance herbariums, Old Polish cuisine, medicinal raw materials, medical garden, botanical garden, Laurentius Scholz, Wrocław, herbal medicines, court medicine cabinets, court’s medicine, 18th century, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Ukraine, steppes, historical park-garden, „Zofiówka”, gardening art, literature, resin, old medicines, Mateusz B. Grabowski, museum, pharmacy vessels, medicinal plants, army, warfare, history of phytotherapy, weterynaria, rośliny lecznicze, zwierzęta, kultura staropolska, pathology, antiseptics, toxicology, miasma, contagium, plague, pus, epidemic, cholera, treatment methods, history of medicine, Amur cork tree, Phellodendron amurense Rupr., Kihada, novel food, antibacterial activity, Streptococcus mutans, caffeine free, garlic, antioxidant activity, total phenol, GSH, L-ascorbic acid, processing, Allium species, leaves, inflorescences, onions, nutritional value, antioxidant activity, traditional medicine, rose (disease), diseases, herbal raw materials, medicines, food, „healthy drink”, aktyk, kumiss, traditional medicine, complementary medicine, tradition, cultural heritage, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, Central Asia, medicinal plants, herbal market, Siberia, Arshan, laurel (Laurus L.), ancient tradition, mythology, folk culture, Jan Černý, medicine and pharmacy in Bohemia, medieval pharmacy, materia medica, Hussitism, Bohemian Brethren, Stefan Falimirz, Miguel de Cervantes, Andrés Laguna, Dioscorides, literature, plants, herbalism, hallucinogenic activities, madness, witches, count of Monte Christo, Alexandre Dumas, crow’s eye tree, St. Ignatius bean, strychnine, brucine, toxicology, carnation, Dianthus caryophyllus, Syreniusz, herbal medicine, PRL