The article is a review of research areas in the field of women’s migration studies with particular emphasis on the mobility of Polish women. We characterize the gradual paradigm shift, which has led to the observation of differences in the migration of women and men, and recognition that gender is a key variable necessary for analyzing and explaining them. Our goal is also to present the mobility of Polish women in a historical perspective, as well as to outline contemporary trends in Polish migration studies. We are looking for the strength and agency of migrant women, their determination to change lives not only for themselves but also for their families, and take into account

Since the end of the 18th century, Former Polish territories had been abandoned by successive waves of deportees, political refugees and emigrants. Among them there were also women. However, their participation in migratory movements, problems and experiences of travel as well as changes related to the new settlement are omitted and marginalized in most historical studies. This results from the lack of sources, lack of detailed research on the participation and role of women in subsequent waves and directions of Polish migration, as well as from the lack of interest in this subject on the part of historians. It should be stressed that the last of these barriers has been broken only since the 1980s. The examples presented here show, however, that the history of Polish emigration is based mainly on the experiences of men.
The aim of the article is to present the state of research concerning subsequent periods, different directions and familiar and less familiar issues related to the migration of Polish women from the 19th century till the outbreak of World War II. The presented issues include political migrations, study trips, various directions of economic emigration (Ruhr, France, USA, Brazil, Canada) as well as relocations from the period of World War I. The comparison of available statistical data shows a gradual increase in the number of women among Polish migrants. Their percentage, the course of fate and the processes of change in their position within the family as well as in the local and supra-local ethnic community and beyond it had been shaped in different ways. They depended both on the period of emigration, the country and place of settlement as well as the nature of the activities undertaken. Another important factor seems to be the attitude and assistance for women-immigrants in the countries of their settlement. This issue, however, still remains in the sphere of suggestions for future researchers, both men and women.

Having arrived in the United States at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, Polish emigrants found themselves in a foreign and often unfriendly environment. Despite cultural differences, Polish women who did not know the language and American traditions were able to create themselves and their own/new space by transcending the borders of the home world and through involvement in social life. From the end of the 19th century, women of Polish origin had created an educational system that allowed them to work within their ethnic community, establish orphanages, work in charitable associations and organize strikes and boycotts, thus proving their political strength. Taking advantage of the freedom of association existing in American society and the tradition ofv solidarity and self-help in the neighborhood, Polish immigrant women began to establish local societies of mutual assistance, which in 1898 united in one central organization – the Polish Women’s Union in America – providing women with insurance, care for the preservation of national identity and emancipation.

Traditionally, international migration from Podhale was perceived from the point of view of the economic consequences of departures of Podhale highlanders – men travelling for seasonal work in agriculture (continental departures) or in heavy industry like construction or metallurgy (overseas departures). However, women have participated in international migration from Podhale for decades. Until the end of the 20th century, female migrants from Podhale mainly accompanied the men leaving for work, especially when migrating to the United States. Changes in migration streams from Podhale, present since the 90s of the XXth century, also concerned the participation of women in migration. Female Podhale highlanders increasingly made their own decisions about leaving, and their active participation in international migration triggered changes in the communities which sent them. A confirmation of this fact is the data from my own research, which I conducted in one of the Podhale rural communities – Ludźmierz. On the basis of the conducted research, interesting issues related to migration of female highlanders can be discovered. The article analyses one of the issues, namely changes in the social, cultural and economic capital of the female participants of international migration from Podhale (before departure, during, after the migration) and their impact on the types of activity in the sending and receiving communities.

The aim of the article is to discuss female migrants’ activities and voluntary work in Polish supplementary schools within the context of civic engagement. A growing number of Polish Saturday schools provide a good example of effective forms of cooperation for the benefit of others and represent a potential source of social participation and mobilization. Women play a significant role in setting up and running these schools. They work as teachers, occupy administrative positions, join Parent Councils, raise grant funds, cooperate with local authorities as well as with non-governmental organizations. Not only do female migrants efficiently use their social and cultural capital, but they also constantly increase their access to social networks and other forms of support. The paper stems from qualitative research conducted in the UK and Italy.

The history of migration of Polish women and men to France is long, rich and diverse in terms of gender, education level, age structure and purpose of emigration. The last wave of emigration, which dates to around Poland’s accession to the European Union and the opening of the French labor market for Poles, is characterized by a clear self-organization in the sphere of educational practices for children. The grassroots of educational mobilization is definitely determined by gender and numerous supplementary schools created from individual and collective initiatives illustrate its strength and determination. In the article I present the preliminary results of my research resulting from in-depth interviews with leaders and teachers of the Polish diaspora in France. I conclude with the analysis of questionnaires and participant observation.

While many studies have focused on the international migration of Polish women, the main wave of gendered research has covered the experiences of women who went abroad during the 1980s and 1990s, up until about five years after EU accession (2009). As such, from a generational stance, existing studies have investigated the mobility paths of Baby-Boomers and Generation X. Today migration shapes the biographies of Polish women from Generation Y (i.e. Millennials) who have traits that potentially differentiate them from mobile women in the past and in areas beyond the labor market. Drawing on empirical material from “Peer-groups and Migration” study (2016–2020), we analyze international mobility pathways and migratory decision-making processes of educated women from Gen Y and investigate how mobility intersects with gender and social roles in family/personal life for Millennials. We argue that the „mobile generation of choice” engages in new forms of migration. Although certain family roles have changed among migrant-Millennials, the motherhood/mobility junction remains less prone to generational shifts.

The article aims at presenting a research strategy that provides a better understanding of the presence of Polish females in Norway. A significant part of female migrants’ inflow as well as their strategies and career paths have been shaped by an irregular and undocumented character of work. However, other Polish women have legalized their stay using family reunification procedures, recruitment agencies or other channels providing legal employment. The rapid increase in the number of Polish migrants in Norway was evident after 2004. Although female migrants are lees numerous than male ones, they are better educated.
An investigation that is limited to economic motivations does not reflect the more complex nature of their mobility. Using a conceptual framework of desire, aspiration and autonomy, together with a biographical approach, seems to be more fruitful. The author analyses interviews with women who started their international mobility on their own. Phases of a biography are related to corresponding desires, aspirations, decision-making processes and a way of fulfilling or transforming an initial desire. The article is based on Transfam research and material gathered by the author during her visits as a visiting researcher at Oslo Metropolitan University (former Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences).

After Poland’s accession to the European Union and the opening of the Norwegian market for Polish employees, the gender structure of Polish migrants in Norway changed radically. The number of men increased rapidly in relation to the number of women due to the demand of the Norwegian labor market for employees in the construction industry. For several years, the number of women has been growing slightly faster than the number of men due to family reunification. Poles living in Norway are relatively young and well-educated. Research carried out so far indicates that Polish migrants experience many problems finding employment that is in line with their education (Czapka 2010; Huang, Krzaklewska, Pustulka 2016).
The article presents partial results of qualitative research carried out in Oslo in 2015 among Polish assistants working in Norwegian kindergartens in the framework of the project “Barnehagen som tillitsarena: hvordan lages den flerkulturelle samfunnskontrakten?”, which is part of the Polish-Norwegian project POLFAMIGRA (“Polish female migrants and their families – a study of care deficit “).
The research results indicate that the work of an assistant in a kindergarten is for many Polish women the next stage in their professional careers in Norway and is often perceived in terms of career advancement. For the part of women participating in the study, work in the kindergarten was to be only a temporary type of employment, which was to ensure their income until they find a job consistent with their education. Most of them believed that their work does not enjoy high social prestige and is associated with relatively low wages.

The concept of mixed marriage refers to the relationship of people representing different cultures (intercultural marriage), religions (interreligious marriage or interfaith marriage) or nationality (transnational marriage). Polish women are increasingly deciding to marry foreigners, which are concluded both in Poland and abroad. Marriages of people from different countries, using different languages, brought up and educated in different cultural or religious systems may encounter difficulties in building social / family relationships. This may mean that Polish women in mixed marriages may be /
become victims of domestic, economic, psychological, physical and sexual violence, often conditioned by customary norms. What’s more, not all types of violence or crimes against women are ever banned in the countries where Polish migrant women live. The situation can be further complicated when it comes to a marriage regulated, for example, by Sharia law.
The article attempts to answer the question whether Polish legal regulations (or international agreements ratified by Poland) guarantee that women from mixed marriages receive any kind of protection, and if so, where and how they can apply for it.