FAQ

State Responsibility and the International Protection of Cultural Heritage in Armed Conflicts

Data publikacji: 08.02.2016

Santander Art and Culture Law Review, 2015, 2/2015 (1), s. 147 - 174

https://doi.org/10.4467/2450050XSR.15.017.4515

Autorzy

Andrzej Jakubowski
Instytut Nauk Prawnych, Uniwersytet Opolski
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4914-7068 Orcid
Wszystkie publikacje autora →

Tytuły

State Responsibility and the International Protection of Cultural Heritage in Armed Conflicts

Abstrakt

This article deals with the international responsibility of States for their breach of cultural heritage obligations in the event of armed conflicts. The topic is both highly important and challenging. In fact, the implementation of State responsibility for the breach of a cultural heritage obligation may meet with serious practical difficulties in attributing unlawful conduct to a given State. Moreover, political circumstances often favour the prosecution of individual perpetrators, even if they acted under the direction or control of a State, rather than invoking the responsibility of that State. Viewed in such light, this article briefly discusses the sources and status of international cultural heritage in the event of armed conflict, then deals with the consequences of their violation in international practice. It also discusses the resolution Succession of States in Matters of International Responsibility, adopted this year by the Institute of International Law (IIL), and analyses its potential outcomes in relation to cultural heritage obligations applicable to States’ conduct in armed conflicts.

Bibliografia

Agreement the Governments of the State of Eritrea and the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 12 December 2000, UN Doc. A/55/686-S/2000/1183, http://www.pcacpa.org/upload/files/Algiers%20Agreement.pdf [accessed: 10.11.2015].

Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, November 2001, UN Doc. A/56/83 (2001).

Blake J., International Cultural Heritage Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2015.

Blake J., Taking a Human Rights Approach to Cultural Heritage Protection, “Heritage & Society” 2011, Vol. 4.

Buzzini G.P., Condorelli L., Article 11: List of World Heritage in Danger and Deletion of a Property from the World Heritage List, in: F. Francioni, F. Lenzerini (eds.), The 1972 World Heritage

Convention: A Commentary, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2007.

Carcano A., The Criminalization and Prosecution of Attacks against Cultural Property, in: F. Pocar, M. Pedrazzi, M. Frulli (eds.), War Crimes and the Conduct of Hostilities: Challenges to Adjudication and Investigation, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham 2013.

Carducci G., The Growing Complexity of International Art Law: Conflicts of Law, Mandatory
Rules, UNSC Resolutions and EU Regulations, in: B.T. Hoffman (ed.), Art and Cultural Heritage. Law, Policy and Practice, Cambridge University Press, New York 2006.

Charter of the United Nations, 26 June 1945, 1 UNTS XVI, amended in 1963 (557 UNTS 143), in 1965 (638 UNTS 308), and in 1971 (892 UNTS 119).

Chechi A., Evaluating the Establishment of an International Cultural Heritage Court, “Art, Antiquity & Law” 2013, Vol. 18.

Convention Concerning the Protection of World Natural and Cultural Heritage, 16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151.

Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 240.

Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, 14 November 1970, 823 UNTS 231.

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 9 December 1948, 78 UNTS 277.

Council Regulation (EU) No. 1332/2013 Amending Regulation (EU) No. 36/2012 Concerning Restrictive Measures in View of the Situation in Syria, 13 December 2013, OJ L 335, 14.12.2013, pp. 3-7.

Crawford J., State Responsibility, in: Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford University Press, Heidelberg-Oxford 2006, http://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1093?prd=EPIL [accessed: 11.11.2015].

Crawford J., State Responsibility: The General Part, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2013.

Czapliński W., Equity and Equitable Principles in the Law of State Succession, in: M. Mrak (eds.), Succession of States, The Hague 1999.

Czapliński W., State Succession and State Responsibility, “Canadian Yearbook of International Law” 1990, Vol. 28.

Dumberry P., State Succession to International Responsibility, Brill-Nijhoff, Leiden – Boston 2007.

Dumberry P., The Controversial Issue of State Succession to International Responsibility in Light of Recent State Practice, “German Yearbook of International Law” 2006, Vol. 49.

Final Act and Annex of the Paris Peace Conference on Reparation, 21 December 1945, Annex 1: Resolution on the Subject of Restitution in J.B. Howard, The Paris Agreement on Reparations from Germany, United States Government Printing Office, Washington DC 1946.

First Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 358.

Fishman J.P., Locating the International Interest in Intranational Cultural Property Disputes, “Yale Journal of International Law” 2009, Vol. 35.

Forrest C., International Law and the Protection of Cultural Heritage, Routledge, London –New York 2010.

Francioni F., Au-delà des traités: l’émergence d’un nouveau droit coutumier pour la protection du patrimoine culturel, “Revue générale de droit international public” 2007, Vol. 111.

Francioni F., Evolving Framework for the Protection of Cultural Heritage in International Law, in: S. Borelli, F. Lenzerini (eds.), Cultural Heritage, Cultural Rights, Cultural Diversity. New Developments in International Law, Brill-Nijhoff, Leiden – Boston 2012.

Francioni F., Lenzerini F., The Obligation to Prevent and Avoid Destruction of Cultural Heritage:From Bamiyan to Iraq, in: B.T. Hoffman (ed.), Art and Cultural Heritage. Law, Policy and Practice, Cambridge University Press, New York 2006.

Francioni F., Public and Private in the International Protection of Global Cultural Goods, “European Journal of International Law” 2012, Vol. 23.

Gal-Or N., Ryngaert C., Noortmann M. (eds.), Responsibilities of the Non-State Actor in Armed Conflict and the Market Place: Theoretical Considerations and Empirical Findings, Brill-Nijhoff, Leiden – Boston 2015.

Gattini A., Restitution by Russia of Works of Art Removed from German Territory at the End of the Second World War, “European Journal of International Law” 1996, Vol. 1.

General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 14 December 1995, 35 ILM (1996) 89.

Hausler K., Culture under Attack: The Destruction of Cultural Heritage by non-State Armed Groups, “Santander Art and Culture Law Review” 2015, No. 2.

Hector M., Enhancing Individual Criminal Responsibility for Offences Involving Cultural Property – the Road to the Rome Statute and the 1999 Second Protocol, in: N. van Woudenberg,

L. Lijnzaad (eds.), Protecting Cultural Property in Armed Conflict, Brill-Nijhoff, Leiden – Boston 2010.

Henkaerts J.-M., Doswald-Beck L. (eds), Customary International. Humanitarian Law, Vol. 1: Rules, Vol. 2: Practice, Cambridge University Press, New York 2005.

Howe Z., Can the 1954 Hague Convention Apply to Non-State Actors?: A Study of Iraq and Libya, “Texas International Law Journal” 2012, Vol. 4. http://www.min-kulture.hr/default.aspx?id=9899 [accessed: 12.11.2015]. http://www.unesco.org/eri/la/convention.asp?KO=13637&language=E&order=alpha [accessed:16.11.2015].

Jakubowski A., State Succession in Cultural Property, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2015.

Kaul I., Grunberg I., Stern M.A. (eds.), Global Public Goods: International Cooperation in the 21st Century, Oxford University Press, New York – Oxford 1999.

Kennedy Grimsted P., Legalizing “Compensation” and the Spoils of War: the Russian Law on the Displaced Cultural Valuables and the Manipulation of Historic Memory, “International Journal of Cultural Property” 2010, Vol. 17.

Kohen M.G., Rapporteur, State Succession in Matters of State Responsibility. Provisional Report and State Succession in Matters of State Responsibility. Draft Resolution, 9 August 2013, IIL, 14th Commission, Tokyo Session, 2013, available at: http://www.idi-iil.org/idiE/annuaireE/2013/IIL_14_Kohen.pdf [accessed: 5.11.2015].

Kohen M.G., Rapporteur, State Succession in Matters of State Responsibility. Final Report, 30 June 2015, IIL, 14th Commission, Tallinn Session, 2015, http://www.justitiaetpace.org/idiE/annuaireE/2015/IIL_14_2015-06-30.pdf [accessed: 14.11.2015].

Kowalski W., Restitution of Works of Art Pursuant to Private and Public International Law, “Collected Courses of The Hague Academy of International Law” 2001, Vol. 288.

Lenzerini F., The Role of International and Mixed Criminal Courts in the Enforcement of International Norms Concerning the Protection of Cultural Heritage, in: F. Francioni, J. Gordley (eds.), Enforcing International Cultural Heritage Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2013.

Mikulka V., State Succession and Responsibility, in: J. Crawford, A. Pellet, S. Olleson (eds.), The Law of International Responsibility, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2010.

Nowlan J., Cultural Property and the Nuremberg War Crimes Trial, “Humanitares Volkerrecht” 1993, Vol. 4.

O’Keefe R., The Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict, Cambridge University Press, New York 2006.

O’Keefe R., World Cultural Heritage: Obligations to the International Community as a Whole?, “International & Comparative Law Quarterly” 2004, Vol. 53.

Observance by United Nations Forces of International Humanitarian Law, UN Secretary- General’s Bulletin, 6 August 1999, UN Doc. ST/SGB/1999/13.

Oeter S., State Succession and the Struggle over Equity: Some Observations on the Laws of State Succession with Respect to State Property and Debts in Cases of Separation and Dissolution of States, “German Yearbook of International Law” 1995, Vol. 38.

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 3.

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts, 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 609.

Protocol on Restitution of Cultural Assets from Serbia to Croatia Signed, 23 March 2012, http://www.culturenet.hr/default.aspx?id=44206 [accessed: 13.11.2015].

Prott L.V., Principles for the Resolution of Disputes Concerning Cultural Heritage Displaced During the Second World War, in: E. Simpson (ed.), The Spoils of War, Harry N. Abrams, New York 1997.

Ragazzi M., The Concept of International Obligations Erga Omnes, 2nd edn., Oxford University Press, Oxford 2000.

Regulations Annexed to the Convention (II) with Respect to the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 29 July 1899, 187 Parry’s CTS 429.

Regulations Annexed to the Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land, 18 October 1907, 208 Parry’s CTS 77.

Report by the Director-General of UNESCO on the Preparation of a Draft Declaration of Principles Relating to Cultural Objects Displaced in Connection with the Second World War, 13 March 2009, UNESCO Doc. 181/EX/53 Add, Annex I.

Report of the International. Law Commission. Fifty-third session (23 April-1 June and 2 July-10 August 2001), UN Doc. A/56/10.

Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 26 March 1999, 2253 UNTS 212.

Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 90.

Statute of the International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, adopted on 25 May 1993, UN Doc. S/RES/827 (1992).

Stern B., Responsabilité international et succession d’États, in: L. Boisson de Chazournes, V. Gowlland-Debbas (eds.), The International Legal System in Quest of Equity and Universality/ L’ordre juridique international, un système en quête d’équité et d’universalité, Brill-Nijhoff, Leiden – Boston 2001.

Succession of States in Matters of International Responsibility, IIL, 14th Commission, M.G. Kohen (Rapporteur), 28 August 2015, http://www.justitiaetpace.org/idiE/resolutions E/2015_Tallinn_14_en.pdf [accessed: 15.11.2015].

Tai-Heng Cheng, Why New States Accept Old Obligations?, “University of Illinois Law Review” 2011, Vol. 1.

Tams Ch.J., Enforcing Obligations Erga Omnes in International Law, Cambridge University Press, New York 2005.

The Inter-Allied Declaration against Acts of Dispossession Committed in Territories under Enemy Occupation or Control, 5 January 1943, http://www.lootedartcommission. com/ inter-allied-declaration [accessed: 15.11.2015].

Tomuschat Ch., Thouvenin J.-M. (eds.), The Fundamental Rules of The International Legal Order: Jus Cogens And Obligations Erga Omnes, Brill-Nijhoff, Leiden – Boston 2006.

Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Austria together with Protocol and Declarations (Treaty of St Germain-en-Laye), 10 September 1919, 226 Parry’s CTS 8.

Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany (Treaty of Versailles), 28 June 1919, 225 Parry’s CTS 188.

Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Hungary together with Protocol and Declarations (Treaty of Trianon), 4 June 1920, 6 LNTS 187.

Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg 14 November 1945–1 October 1946, International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg 1948, Vol. 2.

UNESCO Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage, 17 October 2003, UNESCO Doc. 32 C/Res. 33 (2003).

UNESCO Draft Declaration of Principles Relating to Cultural Objects Displaced in Relation to the Second World War, Paris, 9 March 2007, UNESCO Doc. 34C/22, Annex I; UNESCO Doc. 35C/24.

UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, 2 November 2001, UNESCO Doc. 31C/Res.

United Nations Security Council Resolution No. 1483, 22 May 2003, UN Doc. S/RES/1483 (2003).

United Nations Security Council Resolution No. 686, 2 March 1991, UN Doc. S/RES/686 (1991).

Vásárhelyi I., Restitution in International Law, Publishing House of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest 1964.

Volkovitch M.J., Righting Wrongs: Toward a New Theory of State Succession to Responsibility for International Delicts, “Columbia Law Review” 1992, Vol. 92.

Vrdoljak A.F., Enforcement of Restitution of Cultural Heritage through Peace Agreements, in: F. Francioni, J. Gordley (eds.), Enforcing International Cultural Heritage Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2013.

Vrdoljak A.F., Genocide and Restitution: Ensuring Each Group’s Contribution to Humanity, “European Journal of International Law” 2011, Vol. 22.

Vrdoljak A.F., Human Rights and Cultural Heritage in International Law, in: F. Lenzerini, A.F. Vrdoljak (eds.), International Law for Common Goods: Normative Perspectives on Human Rights, Culture and Nature, Hart, Oxford 2014.

Vrdoljak A.F., Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage and International Law, in: K. Koufa (ed.), Multiculturalism and International Law, Thesaurus Acroasium, Vol. XXXV, Sakkoulas Publications, Thessaloniki 2007.

Vrdoljak A.F., Liberty, Equality, Diversity: States, Cultures and International Law, in: A.F. Vrdoljak (ed.), The Cultural Dimension of Human Rights, Oxford University Press, New York 2013.

Waterton E., Watson S., Heritage and Community Engagement: Collaboration or Contestation?,
Routledge, London – New York 2010.

Weatherall Th., Jus Cogens: International Law and Social Contract, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2015.

Informacje

Informacje: Santander Art and Culture Law Review, 2015, 2/2015 (1), s. 147 - 174

Typ artykułu: Oryginalny artykuł naukowy

Tytuły:

Polski:

State Responsibility and the International Protection of Cultural Heritage in Armed Conflicts

Angielski:

State Responsibility and the International Protection of Cultural Heritage in Armed Conflicts

Autorzy

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4914-7068

Andrzej Jakubowski
Instytut Nauk Prawnych, Uniwersytet Opolski
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4914-7068 Orcid
Wszystkie publikacje autora →

Instytut Nauk Prawnych, Uniwersytet Opolski

Publikacja: 08.02.2016

Status artykułu: Otwarte __T_UNLOCK

Licencja: Żadna

Udział procentowy autorów:

Andrzej Jakubowski (Autor) - 100%

Korekty artykułu:

-

Języki publikacji:

Angielski