The ICJ, Racial Discrimination, and the Protection of Cultural Heritage
cytuj
pobierz pliki
RIS BIB ENDNOTEChoose format
RIS BIB ENDNOTEPublication date: 18.12.2024
Santander Art and Culture Law Review, 2024, 2/2024 (10), pp. 263 - 282
https://doi.org/10.4467/2450050XSNR.24.021.20832Authors
The ICJ, Racial Discrimination, and the Protection of Cultural Heritage
This article examines the protection of cultural heritage in the jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice (ICJ, or Court) under the 1965 International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD). It analyses all the cases before the ICJ in which the issue has arisen to date, with a particular focus on the key order on provisional measures in Armenia v. Azerbaijan, issued in 2021. The main argument is that this decision, although to some extent controversial, has set a precedent for other cultural heritage protection cases before the Court. However, in light of further ICJ jurisprudence, states will still have to meet a heavy burden of proof in order to make real use of this precedent, in particular to redress actual collective harm to affected communities.
African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, June 1981.
Banton M., International Action Against Racial Discrimination, Oxford University Press, New York 1996.
Blake J., On Defining the Cultural Heritage, “International & Comparative Law Quarterly” 2000, Vol. 49(1).
Blake J., Taking a Human Rights Approach to Cultural Heritage Protection, “Heritage & Society” 2011, Vol. 4(2).
Charter of the United Nations, 26 June 1945, 1 UNTS XVI.
Chechi A., The 2013 Judgment of the ICJ in the Temple of Preah Vihear Case and the Protection of World Cultural Heritage Sites in Wartime, “Asian Journal of International Law” 2016, Vol. 6(2).
Chishty F., Is Cultural Desecration Racial Discrimination in International Law? Implications of the Order Indicating Provisional Measures in Armenia v Azerbaijan [2021], 24 March 2022, https://cilj.co.uk/2022/03/24/is-cultural-desecration-racial-discrimination-in-international-law-implications-of-the-order-indicating-provisional-measures-in-armenia-v-azerbaijan-2021/ [accessed: 12.05.2024].
Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 240.
European Court of Human Rights, Ahunbay and Others v. Turkey, Application No. 6080/06, Decision of 29 January 2019.
European Court of Human Rights, Syllogos Ton Athinaion v. the United Kingdom, Application No. 48259/15, Decision of 31 May 2016.
Herman A., A New Take on Cultural Heritage at the ICJ – Armenia v. Azerbaijan, 17 February 2022, https://ial.uk.com/new-take-icj/ [accessed: 12.05.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Application Instituting Proceedings, 16 January 2017, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/166/166-20170116-APP-01- 00-EN.pdf [accessed: 18.08.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Judgment of 31 January 2024, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/166/166-20240131-jud-01-00-en.pdf [accessed: 18.08.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Memorial of Ukraine, 12 June 2018, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/166/166-20180612-WRI-01-00-EN.pdf [accessed: 18.08.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 8 November 2019, ICJ Reports 2019.
ICJ, Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Provisional Measures, Order of 19 April 2017, ICJ Reports 2017.
ICJ, Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Reply of Ukraine, 29 April 2022, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/166/166-20220429-WRI-01-00-EN.pdf [accessed: 18.08.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v. Russian Federation), Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures, 16 January 2017, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/166/19316.pdf [accessed: 18.08.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Armenia v. Azerbaijan), Application Instituting Proceedings and Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures, 16 September 2021, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/180/180-20210916-APP-01-00-EN.pdf [accessed: 18.08.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Armenia v. Azerbaijan), Provisional Measures, Declaration of Judge Ad Hoc Keith, ICJ Reports 2021.
ICJ, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Armenia v. Azerbaijan), Provisional Measures, Dissenting Opinion of Judge Yusuf, ICJ Reports 2021.
ICJ, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Armenia v. Azerbaijan), Provisional Measures, Order of 7 December 2021, ICJ Reports 2021.
ICJ, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Armenia v. Azerbaijan), Provisional Measures, Order of 17 November 2023, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/180/180-20231117-ord-01- 00-en.pdf [accessed: 18.08.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Azerbaijan v. Armenia), Application Instituting Proceedings, 23 September 2021, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/181/181-20210923-APP-01-00-EN.pdf [accessed: 18.08.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Azerbaijan v. Armenia), Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures, 23 September 2021, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/181/181-20210923-REQ-01-00-EN.pdf [accessed: 18.08.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Application Instituting Proceedings, 12 August 2008, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/140/14657.pdf [accessed: 18.08.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Memorial of Georgia, 2 September 2009, https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/140/16097.pdf [accessed: 18.08.2024].
ICJ, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 1 April 2011, ICJ Reports 2011.
ICJ, Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Provisional Measures, Order of 15 October 2008, ICJ Reports 2008.
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 7 March 1966, 660 UNTS 195.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3.
Jakubowski A., Heritage Destruction as a Collective Harm, in: A. Strecker, J. Powderly (eds.), Heritage Destruction, Human Rights and International Law, Brill, Leiden 2023.
Jakubowski A. et al., International Law Association Committee on Participation in Global Cultural Heritage Governance – Final Report (2022), 7 November 2022, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID4220401_code2548995.pdf?abstractid=4220401&mirid=1 [accessed: 12.05.2024].
Kirchmair L., Cultural Heritage and the International Court of Justice: Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Armenia v. Azerbaijan), Provisional Measures, Order of 7 December 2021, “International Journal of Cultural Property” 2022, Vol. 29(4).
Lando M., The Gift that Keeps on Giving: The ICJ’s Orders on Provisional Measures in the Cases between Armenia and Azerbaijan, https://cil.nus.edu.sg/blogs/the-gift-that-keeps-ongiving-the-icjs-orders-on-provisional-measures-in-the-cases-between-armenia-andazerbaijan-by-massimo-lando/ [accessed: 12.05.2024].
Lerner N., The U.N. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, Sijthoff & Noordhoff, Alphen aan den Rijn 1980.
Maghakyan S., Cultural Desecration Is Racial Discrimination, “Foreign Policy”, 13 January 2022.
Murillo P., Ojulari E., General Recommendation 34: A Contribution to the Visibility and Inclusion of Afro-descendants in Latin America, in: D. Keane, A. Waughray (eds.), Fifty Years of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination: A Living Instrument, Manchester University Press, Manchester 2017.
Mustafayev N., ‘Small Hiroshima’: Addressing Systemic Cultural Heritage Erasure in Formerly Armenia-Occupied Territories, 4 August 2022, https://opiniojuris.org/2022/08/04/small-hiroshima-addressing-systemic-cultural-heritage-erasure-in-formerly-armenia-occupied-territories/ [accessed: 12.05.2024].
Polymenopoulou E., Cultural Rights in the Case Law of the International Court of Justice, “Leiden Journal of International Law” 2014, Vol. 27(2).
Statute of the International Court of Justice, 26 June 1945, 59 Stat. 1055, 33 UNTS 93.
Symonides J., The Legal Nature of Commitments Related to the Question of Minorities, “International Journal on Group Rights” 1995/1996, Vol. 3(4).
Thornberry P., The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination: A Commentary, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2016.
UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151.
UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, 17 October 2003, 2368 UNTS 3.
UNESCO Recommendation concerning the Preservation of Cultural Property Endangered by Public or Private Works, 19 November 1968, https://www.unesco.org/en/legal-affairs/recommendation-concerning-preservation-cultural-property-endangered-public-or-private-works [accessed: 18.08.2024].
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, UN Doc. A/RES/217 A (III).
Information: Santander Art and Culture Law Review, 2024, 2/2024 (10), pp. 263 - 282
Article type: Original article
Titles:
Instytut Nauk Prawnych Polskiej Akademii Nauk
Published at: 18.12.2024
Article status: Open
Licence: CC BY
Percentage share of authors:
Information about author:
Article corrections:
-Publication languages:
EnglishView count: 52
Number of downloads: 27