Beyond “To Return or Not To Return” – The Benin Bronzes as a Game Changer?
cytuj
pobierz pliki
RIS BIB ENDNOTEChoose format
RIS BIB ENDNOTEBeyond “To Return or Not To Return” – The Benin Bronzes as a Game Changer?
Publication date: 12.2022
Santander Art and Culture Law Review, 2022, 2/2022 (8), pp. 49 - 88
https://doi.org/10.4467/2450050XSNR.22.012.17025Authors
Beyond “To Return or Not To Return” – The Benin Bronzes as a Game Changer?
“These works notably stand among the highest heights of European casting”. This is what Felix von Luschan, the curator of the ethnographic museum in Berlin, wrote in 1919 in his book on the Benin objects. Their looting in 1897 foreshadowed a scramble for cultural colonial objects in the heydays of colonial collecting. Today, they stand at the forefront of discussions on return, including new forms of consent, ownership, or re-appropriation. They constitute a special case and have triggered a novel race for returns. This contribution traces some of the violence and colonial stereotypes underpinning their taking, different perceptions of the objects, and contemporary ethical and legal frames for their return. It argues that the contemporary debate over the Benin Bronzes reflects certain changes in the attitude towards return in general; changes which are grounded in the interplay between justice, ethics, and human rights. It challenges the argument that takings were acceptable according to the standards of the time. At the same time it cautions that the current movement towards return should not turn into a cosmetic ritual of self-purification, which detracts from necessary reforms at the macro level.
Adebiyi B., Legal and Other Issues in Repatriating Nigeria’s Looted Artefacts, Abuja 2009.
Adewumi A.A., Possessing Possession: Who Owns Benin Artefacts, “Art, Antiquity and Law” 2015, Vol. 20(3).
Afromet, Statements, http://web.archive.org/web/20190206200328/ http://www.afromet.info/about_us_
statements.html [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Ananwa C.J., Internationalisation of Benin Art Works, “Journal of Humanity” 2014, Vol. 2(1).
Anglin R., The World Heritage List: Bridging the Cultural Property Nationalism-Internationalism Divide, “Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities” 2008, Vol. 20.
Apoh W., Mehler A., Mainstreaming the Discourse on Restitution and Repatriation within African History, Heritage Studies and Political Science, “Contemporary Journal of African Studies” 2020, Vol. 7(1).
Appadurai A., Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value, in: A. Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986.
Arnauld A. von, How to Illegalize Past Injustice: Reinterpreting the Rules of Intertemporality, “European Journal of International Law” 2021, Vol. 32(2).
Arts Council England, Restitution and Repatriation: A Practical Guide for Museums in England, August 2022, https://www.artscouncil.org.uk/supporting-arts-museums-and-libraries/supporting-collections-and-cultural-property/restitution-and [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Atuahene B., Dignity Takings and Dignity Restoration: Creating a New Theoretical Framework for Understanding Involuntary Property Loss and the Remedies Required, “Law and Social Inquiry” 2016, Vol. 41(4).
Atuahene B., Takings as a Sociolegal Concept: An Interdisciplinary Examination of Involuntary Property Loss, “Annual Review of Law and Social Science” 2016, Vol. 12.
Bahr S., Met Museum Announces Return of Two Benin Bronzes to Nigeria, “The New York Times”, 9 June 2021.
Bakare L., Looted Artefacts Withdrawn from UK Auction after Ethiopia’s Appeal, “The Guardian”, 16 June 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/16/looted-artefacts-withdrawn-from-uk-auction-after-ethiopia-appeal [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Barkan E., Aesthetics and Evolution: Benin Art in Europe, “African Arts” 1997, Vol. 30(3).
Bedjaoui M., Towards a New International Economic Order, UNESCO, Paris 1979.
Bello E.G., Shared Legal Concepts between African Customary Norms and International Conventions on Humanitarian Law, “Military Law and Law of War Review” 1984, Vol. 23.
Benton L., Clulow A., Empires and Protection: Making Interpolity Law in the Early Modern World, “Journal of Global History” 2017, Vol. 12(1).
Bernstorff J. von, Schuler J., Wer spricht für die Kolonisierten? Eine völkerrechtliche Analyse der Passivlegitimation in Restitutionsverhandlungen, “Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht” 2019, Vol. 79.
Bertho E., Restitutions du patrimoine africain. Fictions et réalités, “Multitudes” 2019, Vol. 1(74).
Boisragon A., The Benin Massacre, Methuen, London 1897.
Brown K., Mwazulu Diyabanza, the Robin Hood of Restitution Activism, Has Been Fined for Removing a Congolese Funerary Statue From a Dutch Museum, “Artnet News”, 12 January 2021, https://news.artnet.com/art-world/mwazulu-diyabanza-netherlands-1936340 [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Campfens E., Cross-Border Claims to Cultural Objects: Property or Heritage?, Eleven Publishers, The Hague 2021.
Campfens E., The Bangwa Queen: Artifact or Heritage?, “International Journal of Cultural Property” 2019, Vol. 26(1).
Cassidy J., Sovereignty of Aboriginal Peoples, “Indiana International & Comparative Law Review” 1998, Vol. 9(1).
Chambre des représentants de Belgique, Projet de loi reconnaissant le caractère aliénable des biens liés au passé colonial de l’État belge et déterminant un cadre juridique pour leur restitution et leur retour, 25 April 2022, Doc. 55 2646/001, https://www.lachambre.be/FLWB/PDF/55/2646/55K2646001.pdf [accessed: 25.09.2022]
Chechi A., The Return of Cultural Objects Removed in Times of Colonial Domination and International Law: The Case of the Venus of Cyrene, “Italian Yearbook of International Law” 2008, Vol. 18.
Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 21: Right of Everyone to Take Part in Cultural Life (Art. 15, Para. 1 (a), of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), 21 December 2009, UN Doc. E/C.12/GC/21.
Coombes A.E., Reinventing Africa: Museums, Material Culture and Popular Imagination in Late Victorian and Edwardian England, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT 1994.
Cornu M., Renold M.-A., New Developments in the Restitution of Cultural Property: Alternative Means of Dispute Resolution, “International Journal of Cultural Property” 2010, Vol. 17(1).
Council for Culture, Advisory Committee on the National Policy Framework for Colonial Collections, Guidance on the Way Forward for Colonial Collections, January 2021.
Council of Europe Framework Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage for Society, 27 October 2005, CETS 199.
Craven M., Between Law and History: The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 and the Logic of Free Trade, “London Review of International Law” 2015, Vol. 3(1).
Declaration on the Importance and Value of Universal Museums, December 2002, https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/news/news-item/news/1999_2013/hm11_1_93/?lng [accessed: 25.09.2022].
de Clippele M.-S., Demarsin B., Retourner le patrimoine colonial – proposition d’une lex specialis culturae, “Journal des tribunaux” 2021, Vol. 19(6857).
Demarsin B., Restitutie van koloniaal erfgoed, “Faro” 2022, Vol. 1, https://www.foliomagazines.be/artikels/restitutie-van-koloniaal-erfgoed [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Demarsin B., de Clippele M.-S., Georganiseerde terugkeer van koloniaal erfgoed, “NjW” 2021, Vol. 449.
Dermine T., Restitutie: het voorstel van Thomas Dermine, 6 July 2021, https://dermine.belgium.be/nl/restitutie-het-voorstel-van-thomas-dermine [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Desplantes F., Le général Dodds et l’expédition du Dahomey, Mégard et Cie, Rouen 1894.
Diallo Y., African Traditions and Humanitarian Law, “International Review of the Red Cross” 1976, Vol. 16(185).
Driver F., Nesbitt M., Cornish C. (eds.), Mobile Museums, UCL Press, London 2021.
du Plessis W.J., African Indigenous Land Rights in a Private Ownership Paradigm, “Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal” 2011, Vol. 14(7).
Durrant S., Postcolonial Narrative and the Work of Mourning: J.M. Coetzee, Wilson Harris, and Toni Morrison, State University of New York Press, Albany 2004.
Elias T.O., The Doctrine of Intertemporal Law, “American Journal of International Law” 1980, Vol. 74(2).
Elias T.O., The Nature of African Customary Law, Manchester University Press, Manchester 1956.
Elkins C., The “Moral Effect” of Legalized Lawlessness, “Historical Reflections” 2018, Vol. 44(1).
Eyo E., The Dialectics of Definitions: “Massacre” and “Sack” in the History of the Punitive Expedition, “African Arts” 1997, Vol. 30(3).
Federal Foreign Office, Federal Foreign Office on the Signing of a Memorandum of Understanding on Museum Cooperation with Nigeria, 14 October 2021, https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/en/newsroom/news/museum-cooperation-nigeria/2489498 [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Ferrus D., I’ve Come to Take You Home: A Tribute to Sarah Baartman, June 1998, https://kentakepage.com/ive-come-to-take-you-home-a-tribute-to-sarah-baartman-by-diana-ferrus/ [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Francioni F., Beyond State Sovereignty: The Protection of Cultural Heritage as a Shared Interest of Humanity, “Michigan Journal of International Law” 2004, Vol. 25(4).
Francioni F., General Principles Applicable to International Cultural Heritage Law, in: M. Andenas et al. (eds.), General Principles and the Coherence of International Law, Brill, Leiden 2019.
Frobenius L., Voice of Africa, Hutchinson & Co., London 1913.
Frum D., Who Benefits When Western Museums Return Looted Art?, “The Atlantic”, 14 September 2022, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2022/10/benin-bronzes-nigeria-return-stolen-art/671245/ [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Gell A., Art and Agency: An Anthropological Theory, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1998.
General Act of the Berlin Conference on West Africa, 26 February 1885.
German Museums Association, Guidelines for German Museums: Care of Collections from Colonial Contexts, 3rd ed., 2021, https://www.museumsbund.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/mb-leitfaden-en-web.pdf [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Germany to Return Looted Artifacts to Africa, “Deutsche Welle”, 29 June 2022, https://www.dw.com/en/germany-to-return-looted-artifacts-to-africa/a-62300419 [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Gruber J., Ethnographic Salvage and the Shaping of American Anthropology, “American Anthropologist” 1970, Vol. 72(6).
Hébié M., The Role of the Agreements Concluded with Local Political Entities in the Course of French Colonial Expansion in West Africa, “British Yearbook of International Law” 2015, Vol. 85(1).
Herman A., Restitution: The Return of Cultural Artefacts, Lund Humphries, London 2022.
Hickley C., Digital Benin: A Milestone on the Long, Slow Journey to Restitution, “The Art Newspaper”, 8 June 2020, https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2020/06/08/digital-benin-a-milestone-on-the-long-slow-journey-to-restitution [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Hicks D., The Brutish Museums: The Benin Bronzes, Colonial Violence and Cultural Restitution, Pluto Press, London 2020.
Higgins R., Time and the Law: International Perspectives on an Old Problem, “The International and Comparative Law Quarterly” 1997, Vol. 46(3).
Hoskins J., Agency, Biography and Objects, in: C. Tilley et al. (eds.), Handbook of Material Culture, Sage, London 2006.
House of Commons, Select Committee on Culture, Media and Sport, Appendices to the Minutes of Evidence, Appendix 21: The Case of Benin. Memorandum Submitted by Prince Edun Akenzua, March 2000, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmcumeds/371/371ap27.htm [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Human Rights Council, Report of the Independent Expert in the Field of Cultural Rights, Farida Shaheed, 21 March 2011, UN Doc. A/HRC/17/38.
Igbafe P.A., The Fall of Benin: A Reassessment, “Journal of African History” 1970, Vol. 11(3).
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3.
International Law Association, Principles for Cooperation in the Mutual Protection and Transfer of Cultural Material, in: Report of the Seventy-second Conference, 2006, Annex.
International Law Commission, Eleventh Report on Succession of States in Respect of Matters Other than Treaties, by Mr. Mohammed Bedjaoui, Special Rapporteur, May 1979, UN Doc. A.CN.4/322.
Jasanoff M., Collectors of Empire: Objects, Conquests and Imperial Self-Fashioning, “Past and Present” 2004, Vol. 184.
Jenkins T., Keeping their Marbles: How the Treasures of the Past Ended Up in Museums… and Why They Should Stay There, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2016.
Jeurgens C., Karabinos M., Paradoxes of Curating Colonial Memory, “Archival Science” 2020, Vol. 20.
Joint Declaration on the Return of Benin Bronzes and Bilateral Museum Cooperation Between the Federal Republic of Germany and the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1 July 2022, https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/blob/2540404/8a42afe8f5d79683391f81 88ee9ee016/220701-benin-bronzen-polerkl-data.pdf [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Joy C., Heritage Justice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2020.
Kiwara-Wilson S., Restituting Colonial Plunder: The Case for the Benin Bronzes and Ivories, “DePaul Journal of Art, Technology & Intellectual Property Law” 2013, Vol. 23.
Kopytoff I., The Cultural Biography of Things: Commoditization as Process, in: A. Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986.
Kreps C., Appropriate Museology and the “New Museum Ethics”: Honoring Diversity, “Nordisk Museologi” 2015, Vol. 2.
Kreps C., Museums and Anthropology in the Age of Engagement, Routledge, New York 2020.
Kuprecht K., Indigenous Peoples’ Cultural Property Claims: Repatriation and Beyond, Springer, Heidelberg 2014.
Layiwola P., Making Meaning from a Fragmented Past: 1897 and the Creative Process, “Open Arts Journal” 2014, Vol. 3.
Leiris M., Phantom Africa, transl. B.H. Edwards, Seagull Books, Calcutta–London–New York 2017.
Lieber Code, 24 April 1863.
Lixinski L., Digital Heritage Surrogates, Decolonization, and International Law: Restitution, Control, and the Creation of Value as Reparations and Emancipation, “Santander Art and Culture Law Review” 2020, Vol. 2(6).
Longair S., McAleer J. (eds.), Curating Empire: Museums and the British Imperial Experience, Manchester University Press, Manchester 2012.
Losson P., Opening Pandora’s Box: Will the Return of Cultural Heritage Objects to Their Country of Origin Empty Western Museums?, “The Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society” 2021, Vol. 51(6), pp. 379-392.
Losson P., The Return of Cultural Heritage to Latin America, Routledge, London 2022.
Lu C., Colonialism as Structural Injustice: Historical Responsibility and Contemporary Redress, “Journal of Political Philosophy” 2011, Vol. 19(3).
M’Bow A.-M., A Plea for the Return of an Irreplaceable Cultural Heritage to Those Who Created It, 7 June 1978, http://www.unesco.org/culture/laws/pdf/PealforReturn_DG_1978.pdf [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Matthes E.H., Repatriation and the Radical Redistribution of Art, “Ergo” 2017, Vol. 4(32).
Mbembe A., Critique of Black Reason, Duke University Press, Durham–London 2017.
McAuliffe P., Complicity or Decolonization? Restitution of Heritage from “Global” Ethnographic Museums, “International Journal of Transitional Justice” 2021, Vol. 15(3).
McKeown C.T., Indigenous Repatriation: The Rise of the Global Legal Movement, in: C. Fforde, C.T. McKeown, H. Keeler (eds.), The Routledge Companion to Indigenous Repatriation: Return, Reconcile, Renew, Routledge, London 2020.
Mégret F., From Savages to Unlawful Combatants: A Postcolonial Look at International Humanitarian Law’s “Other”, in: A. Orford (ed.), International Law and its Others, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006.
Merryman J.H., Cultural Property Internationalism, “International Journal of Cultural Property” 2005, Vol. 12(1).
Michel F., Serre J., La campagne du Dahomey, 1893-1894: la réddition de Béhanzin, L’Harmattan, Paris 2001.
Moiloa M., Reclaiming Restitution: Centering and Contextualizing the African Narrative, August 2022, https://openrestitution.africa/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/ANF-Report-Main- Report.pdf [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Mubiala M., International Humanitarian Law in the African Context, in: M.K. Juma, A. Suhrke (eds.), Eroding Local Capacity: International Humanitarian Action in Africa, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Upsala 2002.
Museum Volkenkunde, Statement from Benin Dialogue Group, 19 October 2018, https://www.volkenkunde.nl/en/about-volkenkunde/press/statement-benin-dialogue-group-0 [accessed: 25.09.2022].
n’Oba n’Edo O., Akpolokpolo U., Opening Ceremony Address, “African Arts” 1997, Vol. 30(3).
National Museum of World Cultures, Return of Cultural Objects: Principles and Process, 2019, https://www.tropenmuseum.nl/sites/default/files/2019-06/NMVW%20Return%20of%20Cultural%20Objects%20%20Principles%20and%20Process.pdf [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Nayeri F., Onishi N., Looted Treasures Begin a Long Journey Home from France, “The New York Times”, 28 October 2021.
Ndam Njoya A., The African Concept, in: International Dimensions of Humanitarian Law, UNESCO, Paris 1988.
O’Donnell T., The Restitution of Holocaust Looted Art and Transitional Justice: The Perfect Storm or the Raft of the Medusa?, “European Journal of International Law” 2011, Vol. 22(1).
Obinyan T.U., The Annexation of Benin, “Journal of Black Studies” 1988, Vol. 19(1).
Opoku K., Benin Bronzes Belong to Oba of Benin, “Modern Ghana”, 20 September 2021, https://www.modernghana.com/news/1105713/benin-bronzes-belong-to-oba-of-benin.html [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Opoku K., Have Ethical Considerations Returned to Restitution for Good? Smithsonian Adopts a Policy on Ethical Returns, “Modern Ghana”, 6 June 2022, https://www.modernghana.com/news/1162776/have-ethical-considerations-returned-to-restitutio.html [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Opoku K., Oba of Benin Speaks on the Return of Artefacts, “Modern Ghana”, 12 July 2021, https://www.modernghana.com/news/1092994/oba-of-benin-speaks-on-the-return-of-artefacts.html [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Opoku K., Revised Guidelines on Colonial Collections: Germany Not Advanced with Restitution of Looted African Artefacts, “Modern Ghana”, 28 July 2019, https://www.modernghana.com/news/947508/revised-guidelines-on-colonial-collections-german.html [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Opoku K., Will the New Guidelines of the Arts Council England Help Restitution of Looted Asante Gold and Benin Bronzes?, “Modern Ghana”, 15 September 2022, https://www.modernghana.com/news/1183469/will-the-new-guidelines-of-the-arts-council-englan.html [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Osarumwense C.O., Igue Festival and the British Invasion of Benin 1897: The Violation of a People’s Culture and Sovereignty, “African Journal of History and Culture” 2014, Vol. 6(1).
Pavis M., Wallace A., Response to the 2018 Sarr-Savoy Report: Statement on Intellectual Property Rights and Open Access Relevant to the Digitization and Restitution of African Cultural Heritage and Associated Materials, “Journal of Intellectual Property, Information Technology and E-Commerce Law” 2019, Vol. 10(2).
Peraldi A., Oba Akenzua II’s Restitution Requests, “Kunst & Kontext” 2017, Vol. 1.
Peters E., Fair and Just Decolonial Solutions: Adaptation of the Washington Principles to the Context of Disputed Colonial Cultural Objects, “Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law” 2023, Vol. 55 (forthcoming).
Peters R., Complementary and Alternative Mechanisms beyond Restitution: An Interest-oriented Approach to Resolving International Cultural Heritage Disputes, PhD diss., European University Institute, Florence 2011.
Phillips B., Loot: Britain and the Benin Bronzes, Oneworld Publications, London 2021.
Plankensteiner B., Benin – Kings and Rituals: Court Arts from Nigeria, “African Arts” 2017, Vol. 40(4).
Quatremère de Quincy A.-C. Letters on the Plan to Abduct the Monuments of Italy, in: A.-C. Quatremère de Quincy, Letters to Miranda and Canova on the Abduction of Antiquities from Rome and Athens, transl. C. Miller, D. Gilks, Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles 2012.
Rassool C., Re-storing the Skeletons of Empire: Return, Reburial and Rehumanisation in Southern Africa, “Journal of Southern African Studies” 2015, Vol. 41.
Reisman W.M., Reflections on State Responsibility for Violations of Explicit Protectorate, Mandate, and Trusteeship Obligations, “Michigan Journal of International Law” 1989, Vol. 10(1).
Restitution Belgium, Ethical Principles for the Management and Restitution of Colonial Collections in Belgium, June 2021, https://restitutionbelgium.be/en/report [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Robertson G., Who Owns History?, Biteback, London 2019.
Roodt C., Restitution of Art and Cultural Objects and Its Limits, “Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa” 2013, Vol. 46(3).
Rothberg M., The Implicated Subject: Beyond Victims and Perpetrators, Stanford University Press, Stanford 2019.
Said E., Culture and Imperialism, Vintage Books, New York 1993.
Said E., Orientalism, Vintage Books, New York 1978.
Sarr F., Restitution of African Heritage: History, Memory, Traces, Re-Appropriation, Geneva, 24 September 2021.
Sarr F., Savoy B., The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage: Toward a New Relational Ethics, November 2018, http://restitutionreport2018.com/sarr_savoy_en.pdf [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Savoy B., Africa’s Struggle for Its Art: History of a Postcolonial Defeat, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ 2022.
Schildkrout E., Keim C.A. (eds.), The Scramble for Art in Central Africa, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1998.
Schönberger S., Restitution of Ethnological Objects: Legal Obligation or Moral Dilemma?, “Museumskunde” 2016, Vol. 81.
Scott J.B. (ed.), Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences: The Conference of 1899, Oxford University Press, London 1920.
Scovazzi T., Diviser c’est détruire: Ethical Principles and Legal Rules in the Field of Return of Cultural Property, “Rivista di Diritto Internazionale” 2011, Vol. 94.
Scovazzi T., The “First Time Instance” as Regards Restitution of Removed Cultural Properties, “Agenda Internacional” 2012, Vol. 19(30).
Scovazzi T., Westra L., The Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage According to the 2003 UNESCO Convention: The Case of the First Nations of Canada, “Inter Gentes” 2017, Vol. 1(2).
Shyllon F., Benin Dialogue Group: Benin Royal Museum – Three Steps Forward, Six Steps Back, “Art, Antiquity and Law” 2018, Vol. 23.
Singh S., Blake M., O’Donnell J., Digitizing Pacific Cultural Collections: The Australian Experience, “International Journal of Cultural Property” 2013, Vol. 20(1).
Smithsonian, Smithsonian Adopts Policy on Ethical Returns, 3 May 2022, https://www.si.edu/ newsdesk/releases/smithsonian-adopts-policy-ethical-returns [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Spitra S.M., Civilisation, Protection, Restitution: A Critical History of International Cultural Heritage Law in the 19th and 20th Century, “Journal of the History of International Law” 2020, Vol. 22.
Stahn C., Confronting Colonial Amnesia: Towards New Relational Engagement with Colonial Injustice and Cultural Colonial Objects, “Journal of International Criminal Justice” 2020, Vol. 18(4).
Stewart J., Reports of Cases, Argued and Determined in the Court of Vice-Admiralty at Halifax, in Nova-Scotia, Butterworth and Son, London 1814.
Stutz L.N., Claims to the Past: A Critical View of the Arguments Driving Repatriation of Cultural Heritage and Their Role in Contemporary Identity Politics, “Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding” 2013, Vol. 7(2).
The “Benin Plan of Action for Restitution” and What It Means for the Return of Disputed Artefacts, “Elginism”, 28 February 2013, http://www.elginism.com/similar-cases/the-benin-plan-of-action-for-restitution-and-what-it-means-for-the-return-of-disputed-artefacts/20130228/6897/ [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Thomas N., Entangled Objects: Exchange, Material Culture, and Colonialism in the Pacific, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 1991.
Tzouvala N., Capitalism as Civilisation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2020.
UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 2 October 2007, UN Doc. A/RES/61/295.
UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, 17 October 2003, 2368 UNTS 3.
UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, 14 November 1970, 823 UNTS 231.
UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, 20 October 2005, 2440 UNTS 311.
UNESCO Draft Declaration of Principles relating to Cultural Objects Displaced in Connection with the Second World War, 5 September 2007, UN Doc. 34 C/22.
UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects, 24 June 1995, 2421 UNTS 457.
University of Botswana History Department, A Nation Without a Past Is a Lost Nation, 2008, http://www.thuto.org/ubh/bw/skquote1.htm [accessed: 25.09.2022].
van Beurden J., Decolonisation and Colonial Collections: An Unresolved Conflict, “BMGN – Low Countries Historical Review” 2018, Vol. 133(2).
van Beurden J., Inconvenient Heritage: Colonial Collections and Restitution in the Netherlands and Belgium, Amsterdam University Press, Amsterdam 2022.
van Beurden J., Treasures in Trusted Hands: Negotiating the Future of Colonial Cultural Objects, Sidestone Press, Leiden 2017.
Van Beurden S., The Value of Culture: Congolese Art and the Promotion of Belgian Colonialism (1945-1959), “History and Anthropology” 2013, Vol. 24.
Van Hulle I., British Humanitarianism, International Law and Human Sacrifice in West Africa, in: I. Van Hulle, R. Lesaffer (eds.), International Law in the Long Nineteenth Century (1776-1914), Brill, Leiden 2019.
Veraart W., Beyond Property. A Reflection on the Value of Restitution of Looted Cultural Objects, 2 December 2019, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3524852 [accessed: 25.09.2022].
von Luschan F., Die Altertümer von Benin, Vereinigung Wissenschaftlicher Verleger, Berlin 1919.
Vrdoljak A.F., International Law: Museums and the Return of Cultural Objects, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006.
Wagner K.A., Savage Warfare: Violence and the Rule of Colonial Difference in Early British Counterinsurgency, “History Workshop Journal” 2018, Vol. 85.
Washington Principles on Nazi-Confiscated Art, 3 December 1998, https://www.state.gov/washington-conference-principles-on-nazi-confiscated-art/ [accessed: 25.09.2022].
Westlake J., International Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1907.
Wheaton H., Elements of International Law, 8th ed., Sampson Low, Son and Co., London 1866.
Young I., Responsibility and Global Justice: A Social Connection Model, “Social Philosophy and Policy” 2006, Vol. 23(1).
Information: Santander Art and Culture Law Review, 2022, 2/2022 (8), pp. 49 - 88
Article type: Original article
Titles:
Beyond “To Return or Not To Return” – The Benin Bronzes as a Game Changer?
Beyond “To Return or Not To Return” – The Benin Bronzes as a Game Changer?
Leiden School of Law, Leiden University, Turfmarkt 99 2511 DP The Hague, The Netherlands
Published at: 12.2022
Article status: Open
Licence: CC BY
Percentage share of authors:
Article corrections:
-Publication languages:
EnglishView count: 2627
Number of downloads: 1958