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Teresa Wolińska

University of Lodz, Poland, ul. Narutowicza 65, 90-131 Łódź

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https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2927-8922

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University of Lodz, Poland, ul. Narutowicza 65, 90-131 Łódź

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Belizariusz i rzymianie. Mieszkańcy Wiecznego Miasta a garnizon bizantyński w czasie oblężenia miasta przez Witigesa (537–538)

Teresa Wolińska

History Notebooks, Issue 145 (4), 2018, pp. 755 - 774

https://doi.org/10.4467/20844069PH.18.036.8751

During Justinian’s wars with the Goths, the Byzantines in Rome were besieged by Vitiges’ forces. For a year and nine days the Byzantine garrison of 5,000 soldiers fought off much more numerous Gothic troops. The Byzantines came to Italy and recaptured the territories occupied by the barbarians. Belisarius did much to prevent tensions between his soldiers and the civilians of Italy, but the long-lasting siege had consequences for the inhabitants of the Eternal City and their relationship with the Byzantines. The most important problem was the food supply. Belisarius did his best to collect as much food as possible but the prolonged blockade caused supply shortage. At one point the city was so short of supplies that Belisarius ordered all women and children to leave Rome. In the spring of 538, hunger and plagues reigned in the besieged city. The citizens were desperate because of the inability to use baths, but also due to the lost of their livelihoods. The Romans tried to force Belisarius to enter the battle. At the same time the pro-Gothic sympathies were fuelled by the emissaries of Vitiges. Pope Silverius was considered a Gothic ally, which cost him the papal throne. Desertions were a serious problem as Roman refugees informed the Goths about the actions of the Byzantines. The Romans were also dissatisfied that Belisarius did not want them to take part in the battle due to their lack of discipline. Byzantine soldiers themselves were another problem. Constantine, a Byzantine officer, stole two valuable daggers from an Italian citizen and when the theft was discovered, he attempted to assassinate Belisarius. The above illustrates how difficult it was for a military commander, regardless of his talents, to maintain good relations with the civilians of the city over whom he kept guard.

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Paulicjanie w Bizancjum – uciekinierzy i przesiedleńcy

Teresa Wolińska

History Notebooks, Issue 148 (2), 2021, pp. 247 - 262

https://doi.org/10.4467/20844069PH.21.019.13856

Paulicians, treated as Manicheans and persecuted in Armenia and the Byzantine Empire, escaped to the Arab-occupied territories where they established a state (843–878) and kept invading Byzantium in alliance with the Emirs of Melitene. Eventually Basil I (867–886) was able to defeat John Chrisocheiros and capture Tefrike. Constantine V, Basil I and John Tzimiskes drafted Paulicians into the Byzantine army and got them relocated to the territory of the empire, hoping to use their military potential to defend the borders against the Bulgarians. Consequently, a substantial group of Paulicians found themselves in the Balkans. According to some scholars they were the predecessors of the Bogomil heresy.

* Artykuł powstał w ramach grantu NCN: Herezje dualistyczne w dziejach Europy Południowo-Wschodniej, IX–XV wiek, nr DEC-2016/22/M/HS3/00212.

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Polityka, przyjaźnie i podarunki w świetle korespondencji papieża Grzegorza Wielkiego

Teresa Wolińska

Studia Religiologica, Volume 41, 2008, pp. 141 - 156

Among persons exercising authority or holding high offices, gifts served many purposes, some important. They were part of respective ceremonial, won favors, broadened influences, persuaded donees, or won desired concessions. They could be helpful in propagating the giver’s ideas. Types of gifts and channels of delivery may be studied in official and private accounts of participants in gift giving.

All this was clear to pope Gregory I the Great (590-604). With carefully chosen gifts, he knew how to secure the support of barbarian Western rulers (queen Theodolinda of the Lombards and her son, queen Brunhilda of the Franks, the Visigothic king Reccared, king Ethelbert of Kent). Among such gifts predominated relics (in particular, pieces of St. Peter’s shackles) and books by Gregory himself. There were also other items such as garments.

Many recipients of his gifts were people he had met when he was papal apocrisiary in Constantinople. It is all the more surprising, therefore, that he refused to send relics to empress Constantina, the wife of Mauricius.

The pope was very careful in using the instrument of gift giving. Sometimes he used it to thank people to whom he owed something, but did not try to use it to win concessions he thought important. No gifts are on record to imperial officials in Italy or other Western lands, such as to exarchs, praetors of Sicily, prefects of the preatorium of Italy and Carthage. His frequent gifts of relics of St. Peter’s shackles helped spread the cult of this saint in all of Europe.

Even more cautious was Gregory in receiving presents, perhaps fearing that they might be thought a form of bribery. He readily accepted gifts from friends and donations for the freeing of prisoners or assisting the poor, but steadfastly refused anything that might look suspicious. Among those rejected were gifts from Felix, bishop of Messina, or Januarius, bishop of Caralis.

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