1644-3586 Rozwój turystyki narciarskiej w świetle idei zrównoważonego rozwoju – stan badań The development of ski tourism in the light of idea of sustainable development – state of research Krzesiwo Kinga author Instytut Geografii Uniwersytetu Pedagogicznego w Krakowie, ul. Podchorążych 2, 30-084 Kraków Correspondence to: Kinga Krzesiwo krzesiwo@up.krakow.pl 02 09 2015 Zeszyt 141 2015 117 140 Copyright © 2015 2015 Rozwój i funkcjonowanie ośrodków narciarskich przynosi wiele korzyści gospodarczych i społecznych dla regionów górskich. Odbywa się to jednak w wielu wypadkach znacznym kosztem środowiska przyrodniczego. Ograniczenie niekorzystnych zmian spowodowanych zagospodarowaniem dla masowego ruchu narciarskiego na przełomie lat 80. i 90. XX wieku spowodowało konieczność weryfikacji dotychczasowego modelu rozwoju turystyki narciarskiej. Celem opracowania jest przedstawienie współczesnych problemów rozwoju turystyki narciarskiej na świecie w kontekście założeń osiągania celów ekonomicznych i społecznych przy zachowaniu wartości środowiska przyrodniczego obszarów górskich, zgodnie z zasadami zrównoważonego rozwoju. 1 Abegg B., Agrawala S., Crick F., Montfalcon A., 2007, Climate change impacts and adaptation in winter tourism, [w:] S. Agrawala ( red. ), Climate Change in the European Alps: Adapting Winter Tourism and Natural Hazards Management, OECD Publishing, Paris, 25 – 58. 2 Alpenreport, 1998, Haupt., Bern, Wien. Bachleitner R., 1998, Alpiner Wintersport: Eine sozial-, wirschafts-, tourismus- und ökowissenschaftliche Studie zum Alpinen Skilauf, Snowboarden und anderen alpinen Trendsportarten, Studien Verlag, Insbruck, Wien. 3 Barbier B., 1978, Ski et stations de sports d‘hiver dans le monde, Weiner Geographische Schriften, 5 1– 52, 130 – 146. 4 Barbier B., 1993, Problems of the French winter sport resorts, Tourism Recreation Research, 18 ( 2 ), 5 – 11. 5 Barnas C., Miller C.H., Sperner G., Sperner-Unterweger B., Beck E., Hinterhuber H., Fleischhacker W., 1992, The effects of alcohol and benzodiazepines on the severity of ski accidents, Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 86 ( 4 ), 296 – 300. 6 Bayfield N.G., 1994, Burial of vegetation by erosion debris near ski lifts on Cairngorm, Scotland, Biological Conservation, 6, 246 –251. 7 Bennia M., 2010a, Otwarta księga. Dobre praktyki ochrony środowiska, Resort Narciarski, 6, 76 – 77. 8 Bennia M., 2010b, Stacje narciarskie dla wszystkich, Resort Narciarski, 6, 78 – 79. 9 Bicknell S., McManus P., 2006, The Canary in the Coalmine: Australian Ski Resorts and their Response to Climate Change, Geographical Research, 44 ( 4 ), 386 – 400. 10 Bocian J., 2012, Optymalna energia, Resort Narciarski, 9, 60 – 62. 11 Breiling M., Charamza P., 1999, The impact of global warming on winter tourism and skiing: a regionalised model for Austrian snow conditions, Regional Environmental Change, 1 (1), 4 – 14. 12 Breiling M., Charamza P., Skage O., 1997, Klimasensibilität österreichischer Bezirke mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Wintertourismus, Technical University, Vienna. 13 Brouder P., Lundmark L., 2011, Climate change in Northern Sweden: Intra-regional perceptions of vulnerability among winter-oriented tourism businesses, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19 ( 8 ), 919 – 934. 14 Buckley R.C., Pickering C.M., Warnker J., 2000, Environmental management for Alpine tourism and resorts in Australia, [w:] P.M. Goode, M.P. Price, F.M. Zimmermann ( red. ), Tourism and Development in Mountain Regions, CAB International, Wallingford, 27 – 45. 15 Butler R.W., 1980, The concept of a tourism areas cycle of evolution: Implications for the management of recourses, Canadian Geographer, 24 (1), 5 – 12. 16 Carús L., 2010, Risks of visiting snow destinations: An analysis of skiers views, Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42, 667 – 671. 17 Christopoulou O., Papastavrou A., 1997, Evaluation of the behavior of visitors of ski stations for more effective management – the case of the Pelion region, Medit, 8, 1, 37 – 40. 18 Čuka P., Gregorová B., 2011, Cechy i kierunki urbanizacji turystycznej na Słowacji – przykład stacji narciarskiej Donovaly, Prace Geograficzne, 125, 9 – 18. 19 Dawson J., Scott D., 2007, Climate Change Vulnerability of the Vermont Ski Tourism Industry ( USA ), Annals of Leisure Research, 10 ( 3 – 4 ), 550 – 572. 20 Dawson J., Scott D., 2013, Managing for climate change in the alpine ski sector, Tourism Management, 35, 244 – 254. 21 Del Matto T., Scott D., 2009, Sustainable Ski Resort Principles: An Uphill Journey, [w:] S. Gössling, C.M. Hall, D.B. Weaver ( red. ), Sustainable Tourism Futures. Perspectives on Systems, Restructuring and Innovations, Routledge, New York, 131 – 151. 22 Dolnicar S., Leisch F., 2002, Winter Tourist Segments in Austria: Identifying Stable Vacation Styles Using Bagged Clustering Techniques, Journal of Travel Research, 41 ( 3 ), 281 – 193. 23 Dorward S., Moreau P., 1997, French ski resorts and North American competition, Cahiers Espace, 51, 48 – 51. 24 Elsasser H., Bürki R., 2002, Climate change as a threat to tourism in the Alps, Climate Research, 20, 253 – 257. 25 Elsasser H., Messerli P., 2001, The Vulnerability of the Snow Industry in the Swiss Alps, Mountain Research and Development, 21 (4), 335 – 339. 26 Falk M., 2008, A hedonic price model for ski lift tickets, Tourism Management, 29, 1172 – 1184. 27 Falk M., 2010, A dynamic panel data analysis of snow depth and winter tourism, Tourism Management, 31 (6), 912 – 924. 28 Falk M., 2011, Impact of Long Term Weather on Domestic and Foreign Winter Tourism Demand, International Journal of Tourism Research, www.martin.falk.wifo.ac.at/fileadmin/homepage_falk/files/Falk_2011_IJTR ( 30.06.2015 ). 29 Faracik R., Kurek W., Mika M., Pawlusiński R., 2009, Turystyka w Karpatach Polskich w świetle współczesnych kierunków rozwoju, [w:] B. Domański, W. Kurek ( red. ), Gospodarka i przestrzeń, Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Kraków, 77 – 97. 30 Flagestad A., Hope Ch.A., 2001, Strategic success in winter sports destinations: A sustainable value creation perspective, Tourism Management, 22, 445 – 461. 31 Frąckowiak A., 2012, Szwajcarska jakość teraz także w Polsce, Resort Narciarski, 10, 52 – 53. 32 Fukuskima T., Kureha M., Ozaki N., Fukimori Y., Harasawa H., 2003, Influences of air temperature change on leisure industries: Case study on ski activities, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Climate Change, 7, 173 – 189. 33 Galloway R.W., 1988, The potential impact of climate change on Australian ski fields, [w:] G. Pearman ( red. ), Greenhouse: Planning for Climate Change, CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia, 428 – 437. 34 Geneletti D., 2008, Impact assessment of proposed ski areas: A GIS approach integrating biological, physical and landscape indicators, Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 28, 116 – 130. 35 Gill A.M., Williams P.W., 2011, Rethinking resort growth: Understanding evolving governance strategies in Whistler, British Columbia, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 19 ( 4/5 ), 629 – 648. 36 Gilbert D., Hudson S., 2000, Tourism demand constraints: A skiing participation, Annals of Tourism Research, 27 (4), 906 – 925. 37 Goeldner Ch.R., 1999, The Development of the Colorado Ski Industry: From Transportation to Destination resorts, [w:] M. Fuchs, M. Peters, B. Pikkemaat, E. Reiger (red.), Tourismus in den Alpen, Studia Universitätsverlag, Innsbruck, 33 – 41. 38 Graf P., 1995, Glacier ski tourism in Switzerland: Not without problems, STV Bulletin, 1, 1 0– 13. 39 Harrison R., Kinnaird V., McBoyle G., Quinlan C., Wall G., 1986, Recreation and climate change: A Canadian case study, Ontario Geography, 23, 51 – 68. 40 Havrlant J., 2011, Kierunki i bariery modernizacji ośrodków sportów zimowych w czeskim regionie turystycznym „ Beskidy ”, Prace Geograficzne, 125, 77 – 93. 41 Hawks T., 2012, Facts About Skiing/Snowboarding Safety, NSAA Fact Sheet, National Ski Areas Association ( www.nsaa.org ). 42 Hennessy K., Whetton P., Smith I., Batholds J., Hutchinson M., Sharples J., 2003, The Impact of Climate Change on Snow Conditions in Mainland Australia, CSIRO Atmospheric Research, Aspendale. 43 Hennessey T., Morgan S.J., Elliot J.P., Offner P.J., Ferrari J.D., 2002, Helmet Availability at Skiing and Snowboarding Rental Shops: A Survey of Colorado Ski Resort Rental Practices, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 22 ( 2 ), 110 – 112. 44 Herbin J., 1995, Mass Tourism and Problems of Tourism Planning in French Mountains, [w:] G.J. Alshworth, A.G. Dietvorst ( red. ), Tourism and Spatial Transformations, CAB International, Wallingford, 93 – 105. 45 Hoffmann V., Sprengel D.C., Ziegler A., Kolb M., Abegg B., 2009, Determinants of corporate adaptation to climate change in winter tourism: An econometric analysis, Global Environmental Change, 19, 256–264. 46 Holden A., 1998, The use of visitor understanding in skiing management and development decisions at the Cairngorm mountains, Scotland, Tourism Management, 19 ( 2 ), 145 – 152. 47 Holden A., 1999, High impact tourism: A suitable component of sustainable policy? The case of downhill skiing development at Cairngorm, Scotland, The Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 7 ( 2 ), 97 – 107. 48 Holden A., 2000a, Environment and Tourism, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, London–New York. 49 Holden A., 2000b, Winter tourism and the environment in conflict: The case study of Cairngorm, Scotland, International Journal of tourism Research, 2 (4), 247 – 260. 50 Hoy A., Hänsel S., Matschullat J., 2011, How can winter tourism adopt to climate change in Saxony’s mountains?, Regional Environmental Change, 11 ( 3 ), 459 – 469. 51 Hudson S., 1996, The greening of ski resorts: A necessity for sustainable tourism, or a marketing opportunity for skiing communities?, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 2 ( 2 ), 176 – 185. 52 Hudson S., 2000, Snow Business. A Study of the International Ski Industry, London Cassell. 53 Hudson S., Ritchie B., Timur S., 2004, Measuring destination competitiveness: An empirical study of Canadian ski resorts, Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 1, 79 – 94. 54 Hudson S., Shephard G.W.H., 1998, Measuring Service Quality at Tourist Destination: An Application of Importance-Performance Analysis to an Alpine Ski Resort, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 7 ( 3 ), 61 – 77. 55 Hunter C., Green H., 1995, Tourism and the environment a sustainable relationship?, Routledge, London. 56 Kammer P.M., 2002, Floristic changes in subalpine grasslands after 22 years of artificial snowing, Journal of Nature Conservation, 10, 109 – 123. 57 Karameries A., 1995, Approaches for recording and assessing land use and overlaps in land use in relation to tourism development in the mountains, Farstwissenschaftliche Beitrage, 15, ETU, Zurich. 58 Khan A., 1996, Tourism and a European Strategy or the Alpine Environment, [w:] E. Cater, G. Lowman ( red. ), Ecotourism: A Sustainable Option?, Chichester–NewYork–Brisbane–Toronto–Singapore. 59 Klenovsky D.B., Gengler C.E., Mulvey M.S., 1999, Understanding the Factors Influencing Ski Destination choice: A Means–End Analytic Approach, [w:] A. Pizam, Y. Mansfeld ( red. ), Consumer Behavior in Travel and Tourism, The Havorth Press, Binghamton, 59 – 79. 60 Knafau R., 1979, L’aménagement de territoire en économie libérale: l’example des stations intégrées de sports d’hiver des Alpes Françaises, L’Espace Géographique, 83, 173 – 180. 61 Kongas K., Tolvanen A., Kälkäjä T., Siikamäki P., 2009, Ecological Impacts of Revegetation and Management Practices of Ski Slopes in Northern Finland, Environmental Management, 44, 408 –419. 62 Konu H., Laukkanen T., Komppula R., 2011, Using ski destination choice criteria to segment Finnish ski resort customers, Tourism Management, 32 ( 5 ), 1096 – 1105. 63 König U., 1998, Climate change and the Australian ski industry, The Global Threats to the Australian Snow Country Conference held at the Australian Institute of Alpine Studies, Jindabyne, Australia, 17–19 February 1998, www.aias.org.au/newsletters ( 30.06.2015 ). 64 König U., Abegg B., 1997, Impacts of climate change on winter tourism in the Swiss Alps, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5 ( 1 ), 46 – 58. 65 Krzemień K., 1997, Morfologiczne skutki gospodarki turystycznej w obszarze wysokogórskim na przykładzie masywu les Monts Dore, Francja, [w:] B. Domański, A. Jackowski ( red. ), Geografia, człowiek, gospodarka, Instytut Geografii UJ, Kraków, 277 – 287. 66 Krzesiwo K., 2007, Turystyka narciarska w Beskidzie Śląskim – stan obecny i problemy rozwoju, [w:] W. Kurek, R. Faracik ( red. ), Studia nad turystyką. Prace geograficzne i regionalne. Geograficzne, społeczne i ekonomiczne aspekty turystyki, Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej UJ, Kraków, 85 – 97. 67 Krzesiwo K., Mika M., 2011, Ocena atrakcyjności turystycznej stacji narciarskich w świetle zagadnienia ich konkurencyjności – studium porównawcze Szczyrku i Białki Tatrzańskiej, Prace Geograficzne, 125, 95 – 110. 68 Kurek W., 1997, Rozwój gospodarczy a problemy ochrony środowiska na obszarach górskich, [w:] B. Domański, A. Jackowski ( red. ), Geografia, człowiek, gospodarka, Instytut Geografii UJ, Kraków, 247 – 255. 69 Kurek W., 1999, Rozwój turystyki i jej wpływ na środowisko przyrodnicze Alp, Turyzm, 9 ( 1 ), 161 – 169. 70 Kurek W., 2004, Turystyka na obszarach górskich Europy, Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej UJ, Kraków. 71 Kurek W., 2005, The tourism function of mountain areas, Turyzm, 15 ( 1 – 2 ), 151 – 162. 72 Kurek W., Mika M., 2008, Miejscowości turystyczne w dobie konkurencji ( na przykładzie Polskich Karpat ), [w:] G. Gołębski ( red. ), Turystyka jako czynnik wzrostu konkurencyjności regionów w dobie globalizacji, Wydawnictwo Akademii Ekonomicznej w Poznaniu, Poznań, 219 – 228. 73 Lasanta T., Laguna M., Vicente-Serrano S.M., 2007, Do tourism–based ski resorts contribute to the homogeneous development of the Mediterranean mountains? A case study in the Central Spanish Pyrenees, Tourism Management, 28, 1326 – 1339. 74 Levy A.S., Hawkes A.P., Hemminger L.M., Knight S., 2002, An Analysis of Head Injuries among Skiers and Snowboarders, Journal of Trauma – Injury Infection & Critical Care, 53 ( 4 ), 695 – 704. 75 Lindberg K., Andersson T.D., Dellaert B.G.C., 2001, Tourism development: Assessing social gains and losses, Annals of Tourism Research, 28 ( 4 ), 1010 – 1030. 76 Lipski S., McBoyle G., 1991, The impact of global warming on downhill skiing in Michigan, East Lakes Geographer, 26, 37 – 51. 77 Little Ch.M., Needham M.D., 2011, Skier and Snowboarder Motivations and Knowledge Related to Voluntary Environmental Programs at an Alpine Ski Area, Environmental Management, 48, 895 – 909. 78 Madziková A., Klamár R., Rosič M., Kaňuk J., 2011, Główne kierunki i problemy rozwoju turystyki narciarskiej w Republice Słowackiej, Prace Geograficzne, 125, 111 – 128. 79 Matzler K., Füller J., Faullant R., 2007a, Customer satisfaction and loyalty to alpine ski resorts: The moderating effect of lifestyle, spending and customers’ skiing skills, International Journal of Tourism Research, 9 ( 6 ), 409 – 438. 80 Matzler K., Füller J., Renzl B., Herting S., Späth S., 2007b, Customer satisfaction with alpine ski areas: The moderating effects of personal, situational and product factors, Journal of Travel Research, 46 ( 4 ), 403 – 413. 81 Mazanec J.A., 1999, Perceived Quality, Repeat Visitation, and the Role of Loyality: A Causal Model for Winter Travel to Austria, [w:] M. Fuchs, M. Peters, B. Pikkemaat, E. Reiger (red.), Tourismus in den Alpen, Studia Universitätsverlag, Innsbruck, 79 – 90. 82 McBoyle G., Wall G., 1992, Great lakes skiing and climate change, [w:] A. Gill, R. Hartman ( red. ), Mountain Resort Development, Centre for Tourism Policy and Research, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, 70 – 81. 83 Meyer E., 1993, The impact of summer tourism and winter tourism on the fauna of alpine soils in western Austria, Revue Suisse de Zoologie, 100, 519 – 527. 84 Mika M., 2004, Turystyka a przemiany środowiska przyrodniczego Beskidu Śląskiego, Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej UJ, Kraków. 85 Mika M., 2007a, Formy turystyki poznawczej, [w:] W. Kurek ( red. ), Turystyka, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 198 – 232. 86 Mika M., 2007b, Przemiany pod wpływem turystyki na obszarach recepcji turystycznej [w:] W. Kurek ( red. ), Turystyka, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa, 406 – 482. 87 Mika M., 2009, Ski tourism in the Polish Carpathians – present state and issues of development, Folia Geographica, Acta Facultatis Studiorum Humanitatis et Naturae Universitatis Presoviensis, Presov, 14, 198 – 208. 88 Mika M., 2011, Miasta jako obszary recepcji turystycznej, [w:] M. Mika ( red. ), Kraków jako ośrodek turystyczny, Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej UJ, 15 – 34. 89 Mika M., Krzesiwo K., Krzesiwo P., 2007, Współczesne problemy rozwoju ośrodków narciarskich w Polsce – przykład Szczyrku, [w:] D. Ptaszycka-Jackowska ( red. ), Polska przestrzeń turystyczna, Prace Geograficzne, Instytut Geografii i Gospodarki Przestrzennej UJ, Kraków, 117, 63 – 77. 90 Milne S., Bremner H., Delpero M., 2006, Ski Areas and Sustainable Community Development: „ Global – Local ” Tensions at mt. Ruapehu, New Zealand, [w:] T. Clark, A. Gill, R. Hartmann (red.), Mountain Resort Planning and Development in the Era of Globalization, Cognizant Communication Corporation, New York, 78 – 90. 91 Minghi J.V., 1981, The Franco-Italian Borderland: Sovereignty Change and Contemporary Developments in the Alpes Maritimes, Regio Basiliensis, 27, 2 – 3. 92 Needham M., Little Ch.M., 2013, Voluntary environmental programs at an alpine ski area: Visitors perceptions, attachment, value orientations and specialization, Tourism Management, 35, 70 – 81. 93 Orens A., Seidl A., Weiler S., 2006, Winter Tourism and Land Development in Gunnison, Colorado, [w:] T. Clark, A. Gill, R. Hartmann (red.), Mountain Resort Planning and Development in the Era of Globalization, Cognizant Communication Corporation, New York, 91 – 107. 94 Pignatti S., 1993, Impact of tourism on the mountain landscape of central Italy, Landscape and Urban Planning, 24, 49 – 53. 95 Poil E.M., François H., 2009, Real Estate: A Complex Factor in the Attractiveness of French Mountain Resorts, Tourism Geographies, 11 (3), 334 – 349. 96 Potocki J., Filipczak K. 2003, Ochrona przyrody a narciarstwo zjazdowe w polskich i czeskich Karkonoszach, Prace Naukowe Akademii Ekonomicznej we Wrocławiu, 1009 (1), 71 – 87. 97 Quirk D., Hartmann G., 1995, Examining the dynamics of the US ski industry, Hotel Valuation Journal, 7 – 11. 98 Reis J.B., 1996, Landscape damage by skiing at the Schauinsland in the Black Forest, Germany, Mountain Research and Development, 16 ( 1 ), 27 – 40. 99 Ribalaygua L.C., 2010, Ski accidents and legal responsibility: The Spanish case, Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42, 468 – 475. 100 Rixen Ch., Teich M., Lardelli C., Gallati D., Pohl M., Pütz M., Bebi P., 2011, Winter Tourism and Climate Change in the Alps: An Assessment of Resource Consumption, Snow Reliability, and Future Snowmaking Potential, Mountain Research and Development, 31 ( 3 ), 229 – 236. 101 Scott D., 2005, Global environmental change and mountain tourism, [w:] S. Gossling, M. Hall ( red. ), Tourism and Global Environmental Change, Routledge, London, 54 – 75. 102 Scott D., McBoyle G., 2007, Climate change adaptation in the ski industry, Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 12 ( 8 ), 1411 – 1431. 103 Scott D., McBoyle G., Mills B., 2003, Climate change and the skiing industry in southern Ontario, Canada: Exploring the importance of snowmaking as a technical adaptation, Climate Research, 23, 171 – 181. 104 Scott D., McBoyle G., Minogue A., Mills B., 2006, Climate Change and the sustainability of ski-based tourism in Eastern North America: A reassessment, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14 ( 4 ), 376 – 399. 105 Scott D., Mc Boyle G., Minogue A., 2007, Climate change and Quebec’s ski industry, Global Environmental Change, 17 ( 2 ), 181 – 190. 106 Shealy J.E., Miller D.A., 1991, A Relative Analysis of Downhill and Cross-Country Ski Injuries, [w:] C.D. Mote, R.J. Johnson ( red. ), Skiing Trauma and Safety: Eighth International Symposium, ASTM STP 1104, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 133 – 143. 107 Snowdon P., Slee B., Farr H., 2000, The Economic impacts of Different Types of Tourism in Upland and Mountain Areas of Europe, [w:] P.M. Goode, M.F. Price, F.M. Zimmermann ( red. ), Tourism and Development in Mountain Regions, CAB International, Wallingford, 137 – 155. 108 Soboll A., Dingeldey A., 2012, The future impact of climate change on Alpine winter tourism: A high–resolution simulation system in the German and Austrian Alps, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20 ( 1 ), 101 – 120. 109 Steiger R., 2012, Scenarios for skiing tourism in Austria: Integrating demographic with an analysis of climate change, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20 ( 6 ), 867 – 882. 110 Steiger R., Mayer M., 2008, Snowmaking and Climate Change: Future Options for Snow Production in Tyrolean Ski Resort, Mountain Research and Development, 28 ( 3/4 ), 292 – 298. 111 Straaten J., 1992, Appropriate Tourism in Mountain Areas, [w:] H. Briassoulis, J. van der Straaten, ( red. ), Tourism and the Environment: Regional, Economic and Policy Issues, Dordrecht. 112 Teich M., Lardelli C., Bebi P., Gallati D., Kytzia S., Pohl M., Pütz M., Rixen C., 2007, Klimawandel und Wintertourismus: Ökonomische und ökologische Auswirkungen von technischer Beschneiung, Eidg. Forschungs anstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft WSL, Birmensdorf. 113 Thapa B., Graefe A.R., 2003, Level of Skill and its Relationship to Recreation Conflict and Tolerance Among Adult Skiers and Snowboarders, World Leisure Journal, 45 ( 1 ), 13 – 25. 114 Titus J. H., Tsuyuzaki S., 1999, Ski slope vegetation of Mount Hood, Oregon, U.S.A, Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, 31 ( 3 ), 283 – 292. 115 Töglhofer Ch., 2011, From Climate Variability to Weather Risk: The Impact of Snow Conditions on Tourism Demand in Austrian Ski Areas, rozprawa doktorska, University of Graz, Graz. 116 Tsuyuzaki S., 1990, Species composition and soil erosion on a ski area in Hokkaido, Northern Japan, Environmental Management, 14 ( 2 ), 203 – 207. 117 Tsuyuzaki S., 1994, Environmental deterioration resulting from ski resort construction in Japan, Environmental Conservation, 21 ( 2 ), 121 – 125. 118 Tsuyuzaki S., 1995, Ski slope vegetation in central Honshu, Japan, Environmental Management, 19 ( 5 ), 773 – 777. 119 Tsuyuzaki S., 2002, Vegetation development patterns on ski slopes in lowland Hokkaido, northern Japan, Biological Conservation, 108 ( 2 ), 239 – 246. 120 Tsuyuzaki S., 2005, Miscanthus sinensis grassland is an indicator plant community to predict forest regeneration and development in ski slopes in Japan, Ecological Indicators, 5, 109 – 115. 121 Tuppen J., 2000, The restructuring of winter sports resorts in the French Alps: Problems, processes and policies, International Journal of Tourism Research, 2 ( 5 ), 327 – 344. 122 Tuppen J., 2002, Recent Developments in Alpine Tourism: A Life cycle Approach, Turyzm, 12 ( 2 ), 79 – 93. 123 Vaske J.J., Carothers P., Donnelly M.P., Baird B., 2000, Recreation Conflict among Skiers and Snowboarders, Leisure Sciences, 22 ( 4 ), 297 – 313. 124 Vaske J., Dyar R., Timmons N., 2004, Skill Level and Recreation Conflict among Skiers and Snowboarders, Leisure Science: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 26 ( 2 ), 215 – 225. 125 Waga-Drąg M., 2012, Sezon 2011/2012 należał do Leitnera, Resort Narciarski, 10, 22 – 29. 126 Watson A., Moss R., 2004, Impacts of ski–development on ptarmigan ( Lagopus mutus ) at Cairn Gorm, Scotland, Biological Conservation, 116, 267 – 275. 127 Williams P.W., Basford R., 1992, Segmenting downhill skiing’s latest demand markets, American Behavioral Scientist, 36 ( 2 ), 222 – 235. 128 Williams P.W., Dossa K., Fulton A., 1994, Tension on the slopes: Managing conflicts between skiers and snowboarders, Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 19 ( 3 ), 191 – 213. 129 Williams P., Fidgeon P.R., 2000, Addressing participation constraint: A case study of potential skiers, Tourism Management, 21, 379 – 393. 130 Wolfsegger Ch., Gössling S., Scott D., 2008, Climate Change Risk Appraisal in the Austrian Ski Industry, Tourism Review International, 12 ( 1 ), 13 – 23. 131 Zimmermann F.M., 1995, The Alpine Region: Regional Restructuring Opportunities and Constraints in a Fragile Environment, [w:] A. Montanari, A.M. Williams ( red. ), European Tourism: Regions, Spaces and Restructuring, Wiley, Chichester–New York, 19 – 40. 132 Zimmermann F.M., 1998, Austria: Contrasting tourist seasons and contrasting regions, [w:] A.M. Williams, G. Shaw (red.), Tourism and Economic Development. European Experiences, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester–New York–Weinheim–Brisbane–Singapore–Toronto, 175 – 197. 133 Żemła M., 2004, Ośrodki narciarskie w Polsce i Europie – wybrane dylematy i drogi rozwoju, Turyzm, 14 ( 1 ), 49 – 63. 134 Žideková Z., 2012, V3 – powszechne uznanie, Resort Narciarski, 10, 42 – 43. 136 www.bestofthealpes.com ( 30.06.2015 ). 137 www.giantsridge.com ( 30.06.2015 ). 138 www.nsaa.org ( 30.06.2015 ). 139 www.ostravice–golf.cz ( 30.06.2015 ). 140 www.skiamade.com ( 30.06.2015 ). 141 www.wifo.ac.at ( 30.06.2015 ).