FAQ

Cultural Heritage Destruction and Construction in Border Disputes: A Case Study of South Lebanon

Data publikacji: 11.12.2025

Santander Art and Culture Law Review, 2025, 2/2025 (11), s. 83-112

https://doi.org/10.4467/2450050XSNR.25.018.22683

Autorzy

Sherine Al Shallah
Faculty of Law and Justice, University of New South Wales
Sydney NSW 2052 Australia, Australia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2193-2574 Orcid
Kontakt z autorem
Wszystkie publikacje autora →

Tytuły

Cultural Heritage Destruction and Construction in Border Disputes: A Case Study of South Lebanon

Abstrakt

The southern borders of Lebanon have long been the focus of a territorial dispute, implicating cultural heritage in two key ways. Firstly, the destruction of tangible – and, to some extent, intangible – cultural heritage has been used to weaken the Lebanese population’s connection to borderlands in the south of Lebanon and to reinforce population displacement. Secondly, museum collections and archaeological claims are employed to construct national historical narratives, effectively attributing parts of southern Lebanon’s heritage to other nations and legitimizing associated territorial claims by states linked to those nations. These practices reflect a broader tension between cultural heritage as a national concern, tied to human rights, and as a state concern, tied to territorial sovereignty. Examining them offers both academic insight – contributing to debates on cultural heritage, nations, and states – and practical policy relevance, given their impact on ongoing border demarcation in southern Lebanon. This article explores the intersection of territorial sovereignty and cultural heritage through analysing the international doctrine applied to Lebanon’s southern borders. It reviews the scholarship on transboundary heritage, the link between state succession and cultural heritage, the national characterization of heritage, and its connection to human rights. The study engages with concepts of culture, heritage, identity, territory, statehood, and borders within the Lebanese context and adopts a multidisciplinary approach, drawing on archaeology, ethnography, anthropology, and history.

Bibliografia

Pobierz bibliografię

Al Shallah S., Lebanese Cultural Heritage in Conflict, “STEPPO Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence”, 16 November 2024, https://www.steppo-eulaw.com/2024/11/16/lebanese-cultural-heritage-in-conflict/ [accessed: 18.11.2025].

ALIPH, First Emergency Measures to Protect Cultural Heritage in Lebanon, 17 October 2024, https://www.aliph-foundation.org/storage/wsm_presse/Vnrj1EBKW3HExYfqFUjaDufNO2QN21W697gqvYNs.pdf [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Amnesty International, Nowhere to Return: Israel’s Extensive Destruction of Southern Lebanon, 26 August 2025, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/research/2025/08/israel-lebanon-extensive-destruction/ [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Aust A., Dörr O., Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969), in: Max Planck Encyclopedia of International Law, 2023, https://opil.ouplaw.com/display/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1498 [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Baaklini S., Apocalyptic Scene in Nabatieh: Israeli Aviation Destroys Several Centuries-Old Souks, “L’Orient Today”, 13 October 2024, https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1431198/apocalyptic-scene-in-nabatieh-israeli-aviation-destroys-several-centuries-old-souks.html [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Blake J., Protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Event of Armed Conflict: An Imperative for Cultural Heritage, Humanitarian and Human Rights Law, “Europa Ethnica” 2017, Vol. 74(3-4).

Brockhill A., Cordell K., The Violence of Culture: The Legitimation of the Israeli Occupation of Palestine, “Third World Quarterly” 2019, Vol. 40(5).

Bülow W., Thomas J.L., Cultural Heritage Protection and the Reconciliation Thesis, in: W. Bülow et al. (eds.), Heritage and War: Ethical Issues, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2023.

Campfens E., Whose Cultural Objects? Introducing Heritage Title for Cross-Border Cultural Property Claims, “Netherlands International Law Review” 2020, Vol. 67.

Chainoglou K., The Protection of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Armed Conflict: Dissolving the Boundaries Between the Existing Legal Regimes? “Santander Art and Culture Law Review” 2017, Vol. 2(3).

Chatelard G., Survey Report: Intangible Cultural Heritage of Displaced Syrians, UNESCO, November 2017.

Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No. 21: Right of Everyone to Take Part in Cultural Life (Art. 15, para. 1 (a)), 21 December 2009, UN Doc. E/C.12/ GC/21.

Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151.

Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 215.

Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, 14 November 1970, 823 UNTS 231.

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 9 December 1948, 78 UNTS 277.

Council Regulation (EC) No 116/2009 of 18 December 2008 on the export of cultural goods, OJ L 39, 10.02.2009, p. 1.

Craven M., The Problem of State Succession and the Identity of States under International Law, “European Journal of International Law” 1998, Vol. 9.

Cunliffe E., Muhesen N., Lostal M., The Destruction of Cultural Property in the Syrian Conflict: Legal Implications and Obligations, “International Journal of Cultural Property” 2016, Vol. 23(1).

Directive 2014/60/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 2014 on the return of cultural objects unlawfully removed from the territory of a Member State and amending Regulation (EU) No 1024/2012, OJ L 159, 28.05.2014, p. 1.

Dunkley M., Thoughts on Cultural Heritage in Conflict, October 2018, https://www.academia.edu/37666495/Thoughts_on_Cultural_Heritage_in_Conflict [accessed: 18.11.2025].

El Houri W., “Our Heart that Burned”: Israel Is Wiping Out Centuries of Heritage in Southern Lebanon, “Untold Magazine”, 30 October 2024, https://untoldmag.org/our-heart-that-burned-israel-is-wiping-out-centuries-of-heritage-in-southern-lebanon/ [accessed: 18.11.2025].

El Jammal R., Lebanon–Israel Border Disputes: Can Talks Lead to a Lasting Truce? “The New Arab”, 12 March 2025, https://www.newarab.com/news/lebanon-israel-border-disputes-can-talks-lead-lasting-truce [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Emek Shaveh, Cabinet Decision to Allow Israeli Civil Administration Jurisdiction at Heritage Sites in Area B of the West Bank, 4 July 2024, https://emekshaveh.org/en/cabinet-decision-area-b/ [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Emek Shaveh, Selective Conservation: Policy and Funding for Minority Heritage Sites in Israel, 1 December 2020, https://emekshaveh.org/en/minority-heritage-sites-in-israel/ [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Endorse the Letter from the Lebanese Parliament Members to UNESCO DG Azoulay, 7 November 2024, https://www.change.org/p/endorse-the-letter-from-the-lebanese-parliament-members-to-unesco-dg-azoulay [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Eshel D., Israel’s Border Volatile Despite Pull-out, “Jane’s Intelligence Review”, July 2000.

Eshel D., The Israel–Lebanon Border Enigma, “IBRU Boundary and Security Bulletin”, Winter 2000-2001.

European Court of Human Rights, Case of Izzettin Dogan and Others v. Turkey, Application no. 62649/10, Judgment of 26 April 2016.

Francioni F., The Human Dimension of International Cultural Heritage Law: An Introduction, “European Journal of International Law” 2011, Vol. 22(1).

Francioni F., Lenzerini F., The Destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan and International Law, “European Journal of International Law” 2003, Vol. 14(4).

Frankel J., Israel Plans to Seize Historical Site in the West Bank as a New Settlement Appears, “Associated Press”, 21 November 2025, https://apnews.com/article/west-bank-israel-refugee-camps-hrw-79d231fd15170ef095afdf6090197fc2 [accessed: 26.11.2025].

Fraoua R., Legislative and Institutional Measures to Combat Trafficking in Cultural Property in Arab States, Second Meeting of States Parties to the 1970 Convention, Paris, June 2012.

Geranpayeh S., Israeli Archaeology Bill Raises Fears of West Bank Annexation, “The Art Newspaper”, 3 October 2024, https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2024/10/03/israeli-archaeology-bill-raises-fears-of-west-bank-annexation [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Geranpayeh S., Israeli Settlement on Unesco Heritage Site an “Imminent Threat” to Area, Campaigners Say, “The Art Newspaper”, 19 August 2024, https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2024/08/19/israeli-settlement-on-unesco-heritage-site-an-imminent-threat-to-area-campaigners-say [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Gerstenblith P., The Destruction of Cultural Heritage: A Crime Against Property or a Crime Against People? “John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law” 2016, Vol. 15(3).

Greenberg R., Hamilakis Y., Archaeology, Nation, and Race: Confronting the Past, Decolonizing the Future in Greece and Israel, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2022.

Hamilakis Y., Archaeological Ethnography: A Multitemporal Meeting Ground for Archaeology and Anthropology, “Annual Review of Anthropology” 2011, Vol. 40.

Hladík J., Marking of Cultural Property with the Distinctive Emblem of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, “International Review of the Red Cross” 2004, Vol. 86(854).

Hof F.C., Galilee Divided: The Israel–Lebanon Frontier, 1916-1984, Westview Press, Boulder 1985.

ICOMOS Statement on Immediate and Grave Threats to Lebanon’s Cultural Heritage, 17 October 2024, https://web.archive.org/web/20241114173440/https://www.icomos.org/en/89-english-categories/home/143498-icomos-statement-on-immediate-and-grave-threats-to-lebanon-s-cultural-heritage [accessed: 18.11.2025].

International Court of Justice, Case Concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Judgment of 11 July 1996, Separate Opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen, ICJ Reports, 1996, p. 595.

International Court of Justice, Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case Concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Judgment of 11 November 2013, ICJ Reports, 2013, p. 281.

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3.

International Criminal Court, Office of the Prosecutor, Policy on Cultural Heritage, June 2021.

Irfan A., Kelcey J., Permission to Archive: Curating and Contesting Palestinian History, “Archival Science” 2025, Vol. 25, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10502-025-09478-w.

CrossRef

Kaikkonen T., O’Driscoll C., Seeking Sanctuary: The Pre-History of Cultural Heritage in the Ethics of War, in: W. Bülow et al. (eds.), Heritage and War: Ethical Issues, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2023.

Kamminga M.T., State Succession in Respect of Human Rights Treaties, “European Journal of International Law” 1996, Vol. 7.

KhaliféI.K., La force du droit face au droit de la force, “Revue d’études palestiniennes” 2007, Vol. 103(2).

Khalifé I.K., Lebanon Water and Borders, Beirut 2001.

Law 37 on Cultural Property (Lebanon), 20 October 2008.

Lebanon Plans UN Complaint against Israel over Border Wall, “Reuters”, 17 November 2025, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/lebanon-plans-un-complaint-against-israel-over-border-wall-2025-11-15/ [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Lixinski L., Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Peacetime and International Law, in: J.A. González Zarandona, E. Cunliffe, M. Saldin (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Heritage Destruction, Routledge, New York 2024.

Lixinski L., International Heritage Law for Communities: Exclusion and Re-Imagination, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2019.

McLachlan C., The Principle of Systemic Integration and Article 31(3)(c) of the Vienna Convention, “International & Comparative Law Quarterly” 2005, Vol. 54(2).

Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, 26 December 1993.

Mullerson R., The Continuity and Succession of States by Reference to the Former USSR and Yugoslavia, “The International and Comparative Law Quarterly” 1993, Vol. 42(3).

Nara Document on Authenticity, 1994.

O’Keefe P.J., Commentary on the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, 2nd ed., Institute of Art & Law, Builth Wells 2007.

Pappé I., The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine, Oneworld Publications, Oxford 2006.

Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, 1125 UNTS 3.

Roche D.J., Lebanon Culture Minister Warns Important Heritage Sites Are at Risk by Israel’s Invasion, Including UNESCO World Heritage Sites, “The Architect’s Newspaper”, 11 October 2024, https://www.archpaper.com/2024/10/lebanon-culture-minister-heritage-sites-risk/ [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 17 July 1998, 2187 UNTS 90.

Ruiz Bazán I., Ruskin’s Impact on Spanish Architecture in the 1980s, “MDCCC 1800” 2024, Vol. 13.

Ruskin J., The Seven Lamps of Architecture, Wiley, New York 1849.

Salo E., The Weaponization of Heritage: The Examination of Protecting, Destroying, and Assimilating Heritage as a Weapon in Irregular Warfare, “University of St. Thomas Journal of Law and Public Policy” 2023, Vol. 16(2).

Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 26 March 1999, 2253 UNTS 172.

Sleiman H., The Paper Trail of a Liberation Movement, “The Arab Studies Journal” 2016, Vol. 24(1).

Starzmann M.T., Occupying the Past: Colonial Rule and Archaeological Practice in Israel/Palestine, “Archaeologies: Journal of the World Archaeological Congress” 2013, Vol. 9.

Tercatin R., Archaeologists Dig in Against Antiquities Bill Aiming to Deepen Israel’s Hold on West Bank, “The Times of Israel”, 23 August 2025, https://www.timesofisrael.com/archaeologists-dig-in-against-antiquities-bill-aiming-to-deepen-israels-hold-on-west-bank [accessed: 18.11.2025].

The Lebanese Constitution, promulgated on 23 May 1926, https://lp.gov.lb/backoffice/uploads/files/Lebanese%20%20Constitution-%20En.pdf [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Toman J., La protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé, UNESCO, Paris 1994.

Turner B., The Anthropology of Property, in: M. Graziadei, L. Smith (eds.), Comparative Property Law: Global Perspectives, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham 2017.

UN Security Council, Resolution 425, 19 March 1978, https://unifil.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/old_dnn/425.eda17afa-f25f-47e5-aad9-f83b9c690939.pdf [accessed: 18.11.2025].

UNESCO, Lebanon: 34 Cultural Properties Placed under Enhanced Protection, 19 November 2024, https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/lebanon-34-cultural-properties-placed-under-enhanced-protection [accessed: 18.11.2025].

UNESCO, Normative Framework for Economic Aspects in the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage and Sustainable Development, LHE/23/EXP THEMA-ECO/3.

UNESCO, Operational Directives for the Implementation of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, 2024.

UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, 2015.

UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, 16 July 2025, UN Doc. WHC.25/01.

UNESCO, Preliminary Report Prepared in Compliance with Article 10.1 of the Rules of Procedure concerning Recommendations to Member States and International Conventions Covered by the Terms of Article IV, Paragraph 4, of the Constitution, 8 August 1969, UNESCO Doc. SHC/MD/3, Annex: Preliminary Draft Convention concerning the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property.

UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, 17 October 2003, 2368 UNTS 3.

UNESCO Declaration Concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage, 17 October 2003.

UNESCO World Heritage Convention, Baalbekhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/list/294 [accessed: 18.11.2025].

UNESCO World Heritage Convention, Temple of Preah Vihearhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1224/ [accessed: 18.11.2025].

UNESCO World Heritage Convention, Tyrehttps://whc.unesco.org/en/list/299 [accessed: 18.11.2025].

UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects, 24 June 1995, 2421 UNTS 457.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, UN Doc. A/RES/217 A (III).

van Vliet L., van der Veide J., The Crimean treasures, “IPRax” 2024, Vol. 113(2).

Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of State Property, Archives and Debts, 8 April 1983.

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969, 1155 UNTS 331.

von der Decken K., Article 4 of the 1970 UNESCO Convention: Cultural Property Forming Part of the Cultural Heritage of Each State, in: A.F. Vrdoljak, A. Jakubowski, A. Chechi (eds.), The 1970 UNESCO and 1995 UNIDROIT Conventions on Stolen or Illegally Transferred Cultural Property: A Commentary, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2024.

Who Is the Israeli Researcher Erlich Who Was Killed in the Town of Shamaa in Southern Lebanon? “Annahar Online”, 21 November 2024.

Yesh Din, Appropriating the Past – Israel’s Archaeological Practices in the West Bank, 3 April 2018, https://www.yesh-din.org/en/appropriating-past-israels-archaeological-practices-west-bank/ [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Yesh Din, “Through the Lens of Israel’s Interests”: The Civil Administration in the West Bank, 21 January 2018, https://www.yesh-din.org/en/lens-israels-interests-civil-administration-west-bank/ [accessed: 18.11.2025].

Zayad L., Systematic Cultural Appropriation and the Israeli–Palestinian Conflict, “DePaul Journal of Art, Technology & Intellectual Property Law” 2018, Vol. 28(2).

Informacje

Informacje: Santander Art and Culture Law Review, 2025, 2/2025 (11), s. 83-112

Typ artykułu: Oryginalny artykuł naukowy

Autorzy

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2193-2574

Sherine Al Shallah
Faculty of Law and Justice, University of New South Wales
Sydney NSW 2052 Australia, Australia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2193-2574 Orcid
Kontakt z autorem
Wszystkie publikacje autora →

Faculty of Law and Justice, University of New South Wales
Sydney NSW 2052 Australia, Australia

Publikacja: 11.12.2025

Status artykułu: Otwarte __T_UNLOCK

Licencja: CC BY  ikona licencji

Udział procentowy autorów:

Sherine Al Shallah (Autor) - 100%

Informacje o autorze:

Sherine Al Shallah is an economist, solicitor, teaching fellow, and doctoral researcher with over 20 years of experience in senior policy roles. She holds a postgraduate degree in economics from the London School of Economics and Political Science and a postgraduate law degree from the University of New South Wales (UNSW). She has been a visiting researcher at the University of Milan-Bicocca and Jagiellonian University, has lectured at Politecnico di Torino and UNSW Sydney, and has completed human rights coursework at Aarhus University. Her publications include contributions to the “International Journal of Cultural Property”, “International Journal of Heritage Studies”, “Gulf Education and Social Policy Review”, “Kaldor Centre for International Refugee Law”, “The Conversation”, “Right Now”, and “The Guardian”, among others. She has also appeared in the media as an expert on cultural heritage issues, including France 24 and Deutsche Welle.

Korekty artykułu:

-

Języki publikacji:

Angielski

Cultural Heritage Destruction and Construction in Border Disputes: A Case Study of South Lebanon

cytuj

Pobierz PDF Pobierz

pobierz pliki

RIS BIB ENDNOTE